In this article we will discuss about:- 1. Introduction to Poultry 2. Classification of Poultry 3. Fowl and Poultry 4. Nutrients 5. Feed Ingredients 6. Nutrition Required for Boiler Growth 7. Feeding Management 8. Systems of Housing 9. Incubation.
Contents:
- Introduction to Poultry
- Classification of Poultry
- Fowl and Poultry
- Nutrients Required by the Poultry
- Feed Ingredients Required for Poultry
- Nutrition Required for Poultry (Boiler) Growth
- Feeding Management During the Rearing of Poultry
- Systems of Poultry Housing
- Incubation of Poultry Animals
1. Introduction to Poultry:
Poultry is a term used for any kind of domesticated bird, captive raised for its utility and traditionally the word has been used to refer to wild fowl and water fowl.
Poultry can be defined as domestic fowls, including chickens, turkeys, geese and ducks, raised for the production of meat or eggs.
Poultry are framed in great numbers with chickens being the most numerous. More than a 50 billion chickens are raised annually as a source of food, both for meat and their eggs.
Poultry can be distinguished from ‘game’, defined as wild birds or mammals hunted for food or sport, a word also used to describe the flesh of these when eaten. There are about 13 common colours observed in poultry birds.
2. Classification of Poultry:
Class – Chicken originated from a certain place with same or similar characteristic are of same class, e.g., Asiastic class, European class, American class, etc.
Breed – Under class, chicken with same size, shape and characteristic similarity with each other are of same breed, e.g., Leghorm, minorca, etc.
Variety – Variety is detected by feather colour, heat crest or other physical characteristic with in a breed, e.g., leghorm, black minorca, etc.
Strain – Strain are made for a certain purpose by internal insemination of atleast five generation, e.g., star cross white, star cross brown, star brown, etc.
3. Fowl and Poultry:
Fowl are birds, generally edible birds, whether domesticated or not. Poultry are domesticated birds, birds raised by human as a food source. So, a goose could be classified as poultry depending on whether it is game or a farm animal. Since geese are of that class of animal that is common in the wild yet somewhat domesticated.
Fowl is a word for bird in general but usually refers to birds belonging to one of two biological orders, name the Game fowl or Land fowl and the water fowl. Poultry is a term for any kind of domesticated bird or bird captive-raised for meat, egg.
Fowl is used most often when discussing hunting or dealing with game birds. Poultry is most often used when discussing groceries or cooking domestic birds while fowl is only used in cooking when discussing cooking game birds.
Fowl is a word used for birds in general, but usually refers to birds belonging to one of two biological orders, namely the game fowl or land fowl and the water fowl.
Fowl are birds, generally edible birds, whether domesticated or not.
Classification of Fowls:
Fowl are also classified into various classes:
1. American Class:
(i) Rhode Island Reds:
This breed of fowl was originated from Rhode Island in New England. It has a long, rectangular body. The back is flat and the breast is carried well forward. Usual colour of this breed is brownish red and the wing when spread shows black both in primaries and secondaries. The tail coverts, sickle earth and main tail feathers are also back. In the lower neck feather of the female, there is also slight black marking at the base.
There are two varieties of this breed:
(a) Single comb
(b) Rose comb
Only single comb is most popular.
(ii) Plymouth Rock:
This breed is most popular in America. They have single comb. Mature birds weigh from 3.5-4.5 kg.
There are seven varieties of plymouth rocks:
(a) Barred
(b) White
(c) Buff
(d) Blue
(e) Partridge
(f) Silver pencilled
(g) Columbian
In general the plumage is greyish white each other crossed by almost black bars which should be even in width, straight and should extending down to the skin. It has solid and black or partial black feathers. Black spots on the shanks are also common, particularly in females.
(iii) New Hampshire:
The shape of this breed body is less rectangular than Rhode Island red. It has a single comb. The main tail feathers are black. In both sexes the under colours in light salmon. The breed is a good producer of large brown shelled eggs.
2. Asiatic Class:
Most popular species of this class is Brahma This breed was originated in India and exported to America and England. Mature birds weight from 4-5 kg. Three varieties of Brahmas have been produced – (a) Light (b) Dark (c) Buff Brahma
3. English Class:
(i) Sussex:
The breed is developed in England. It has a long body, shoulders are broad with good depth from front to rear. The males of this breed have a single comb and coloured beaks, shanks and toes.
Two varieties of this breed are – (a) Light sussex (b) Red sussex
(ii) Australorp:
The breed was originated in Australia. It is a good dual purpose breed.
The back is somewhat long and the body slopes gradually toward the tail. The comb is single the body is black. The Austro white a hybrid cross between the Australorp male and the white leghorn female.
(iii) Orpington:
This breed was developed in England. They are long, deep and broad and well rounded, with a full breast and a broad back. Orpingtons have single comb. Mature birds weigh from 4.5 kg.
There are four varieties – (a) Buff (b) Black (c) White (d) Blue
Only the buff orpington has made much popularity in America.
4. Mediterranean Class:
(i) Leghorn:
The breed was originated in Italy. Leghorn is most popular breed. It is the world number one egg producer.
Only three varieties are popular. They are – (a) Single comb white (b) Single comb buff (c) Single comb light brown
The breed is small, active and reputed for the harmony of its various parts. The shape of comb is quite important to leghorn fanciers. They are known for their stylish carriage. Mature birds weight from 2.0-2.7 kg.
(ii) Minorca:
Minorcas, originally called red faced black Spanish, are the largest and heaviest of mediterranean breeds of poultry. Long strong bodies, large combs long wattles, large white ear lobes, the beak, shanks and toes are black.
4. Nutrients Required by the Poultry:
Essential nutrients are nutrients that are needed by all living things these nutrients must either by fed or made by the animals from building blocks obtained through eating, drinking or breathing.
There are more than 40 such nutrients required by the poultry.
These are arranged into five groups namely:
1. Water
2. Energy (carbohydrates and fats)
3. Proteins
4. Vitamins
5. Minerals
The carbohydrates and fats can be further combined into the group ‘energy feed’, as their main function is to supply energy for the maintenance, growth and production of the poultry.
1. Water:
Animals can tolerate a loss of 98% body fat and 50% body protein but not more than 20% body water. A young growing chicken will consume water at about 20% of its body weight.
Hens will consume about 14% of their body weight at 20°C and double that amount at 35°C. Water constitutes about 85% of body weight of the chicks and 55-60% in the adult fowls. Egg constitutes 60% of its weight as water.
Therefore, if the birds are denied water or given only a limited quantity it has an adverse effect on their growth rate as well as production. Prolonged deficiency of water may even lead to death.
It has been experimented that if 11 day old and 18 day old chicks are not given water for 24 hours and 48 hours respectively and then suddenly supplied with sufficient water, the chicks tend to die.
2. Energy (Carbohydrates and Fats):
Energy is not a nutrient by itself, but a property that a nutrient possesses. Carbohydrates and fats are the main nutrient sources of energy, required by the birds.
(a) Dietary Energy:
It consumed by a bird, can be used to supply energy for various body functions or be converted into fat stored in the body or given out in some form of a product. Energy consumed in excess of that which is required for normal growth and activity of the bird is stored mainly as body fat.
(b) Excess Energy:
Once ingested cannot be excreted from the body. For most efficient nutrition, the diet should contain energy in definite proportion to other nutrients needed to produce the desired growth, production of eggs or deposition of carcass fat.
(c) The Fowl:
It obtains the required energy from the ingested feed. But, whole of the energy present in the feed is not available to them. It has been estimated that the net energy value of the diet of the chicken ranges between 70-90% of the total energy.
(d) Carbohydrates:
It can be completely replaced in the diet of chicken by fats, but the growth rate declines significantly. However, fat utilisation is very efficient in chicken and growing chicken may be fed with diets having 12% fat without any effect on the digestibility of the food. Of all the fatty acids, only linoleic acid is an essential nutrient in the diet of a chicken.
Others are important mainly as the concentrated source of energy, as materials which decrease dustiness of the feed, lubricate the passage of diets and increase the palatability of certain feeds.
(e) Small Amount of Glycogen:
Normally stored in the liver and muscle tissues is used up body stores of fat are depleted. Ultimately the protein tissues are also exhausted to maintain the glucose level of blood and to permit other vital body processes.
3. Protein:
Proteins are the major constituents of the soft tissue in the animal body. For growth, egg production and repair of wear and tear of tissues, a continuous and adequate supply of protein in the diet of the chicken is essential. All the proteins are made up of amino acids. However, the nature and number of amino acids comprising various animal and plant proteins are different plant proteins vary from each other and also from animal protein.
Glycine is essential in the diet of the growing chicken but not in the diet of the adult birds. Chicken cannot synthesise many of the amino acids present in their body proteins. These amino acids must be provided through dietary proteins. They are- arginine, lysine, histidine, leucine, isoleucine, valine, methionine, threonine, tryptophan and phenylalanine.
High Quality Dietary Protein should supply all the required essential amino acids in the same proportion in which they occur in the body protein. Also, the dietary protein should have a high digestibility. Diets containing such high quality proteins can fulfill the protein needs of the body with a minimum intake.
In case, the dietary proteins are deficient in one or more of the essential amino acids, they will be able to provide proper protein nutrition even with excessive intake.
Amino Acids which are not used for the synthesis of protein by the body do not go waste as food, since they are converted to an energy source. Chicken body contains various kinds of proteins which differ in their amino acid composition. Therefore, the usefulness of the dietary protein depends, to some extent, on the purpose for which it is fed.
Fewer amino acids are required for maintenance of the body than for the growth. Hence, a protein may be adequate in amino acid content for meeting the maintenance needs of adults, yet it may fail to permit growth.
A Constant Calorie protein ratio (C: P ratio) of 173-180:1 needs to be maintained in the diet of layers in order to ensure that the daily protein intake of birds does not suffer due to imbalance in the diet.
Certain proteins of plant origin are harmful to chicken, e.g., the proteins of raw soyabean and various pulses contain certain deleterious substances which cause growth depression in the young chicken. However, these proteins are rendered harmless when soybean meal or pulses are given after proper heat treatment.
The feed consumption of the layer is influenced by the following factors:
(a) Energy content of the diet (ME)
(b) Temperature in the layer house
(c) Rate of egg production
(d) Feeding space per hen and infection of infestation with parasites.
(e) Body weight and strain of layer
4. Vitamins:
Vitamins are organic substances required by the body in minute amounts for normal growth, health and production. Chicken depend on food sources for their requirement of vitamins.
They are also more susceptible to vitamin deficiencies because:
(a) The microorganisms in caeca of these birds do not provide any vitamin synthesis, instead compete with the host for dietary vitamins.
(b) Due to higher metabolic rate, chicken have a higher need for vitamins which act as the ‘spark plugs’ of the vital metabolic reactions in the body.
(c) Intensively kept chicken undergo many stresses which increase their vitamin requirements.
5. Minerals:
In addition to the elements like carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur which comprises the organic chemical compounds of the body, chicken need at least 13 minerals for their proper nourishment and production. These minerals are – calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, chlorine, magnesium, manganese, zinc, iron, copper, molybdenum, selenium and iodine. There is increasing evidence that two more elements viz. fluorine and chromium also perform essential functions in the body.
Importance of Calcium and Phosphorus:
Both are found in the body mostly in combination with each other and constitute over 70% of the body ash. Deficiency of either in the diet limits the nutritive value of the other one. Growing chicken utilise most of their dietary calcium for the formation of the skeletal system. In the layers, it is utilised for the formation of egg shells. Similarly, phosphorus is important in the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats. Both calcium and phosphate, salts play an important part in the maintenance of acid base balance.
For optimum results, calcium and phosphorus contents in the diet of growing chicken should be in the ratio of 1-2.2 : 1. Dietary calcium and phosphorus in the ratio of 2.5: 1 may be tolerated by the chicken but a ratio of 3.3: 1 is decidedly injurious. It produces leg abnormalities and rickets.
70% of the Body Magnesium is Present in the Skeletal System:
Most of the magnesium found in the eggs is present in the shell portion. Embryo utilises 1 to 18 mg of the magnesium present in the cell for its development during the incubation.
Chicks started on a magnesium free diet die within a few days. Feeding of low magnesium diets to laying hens results in rapid decrease in egg production and in growing chicks, the growth rate decreases.
Manganese Content of the Body:
It is very little, but it performs many specific essential functions in the body. Common poultry feeds are not very rich in manganese; therefore it is of practical importance in their feeding. Dietary manganese is poorly absorbed in chicken. Thus, more manganese is required to be included in the chicken diets than the requirement.
5. Feed Ingredients Required for Poultry:
Several feed ingredients are mixed together to provide nutrients in the diet, at levels required by the birds. Some feed ingredients are used for providing only a particular nutrient, while others provide more than one nutrient. Depending on the main function for which they are included in the diet, the feed ingredients are classified as energy sources, protein sources, mineral sources and vitamin sources.
1. Energy Feed:
Cereal grains, agro-industrial and forest by-products are chiefly used as energy sources. The energy sources are used at a level of 50-70% of the diet. Incidentally, they contribute to a substantial amount of total protein requirement of poultry. Fats, both vegetable and animal origin, are the concentrated forms of energy. Fat utilisation is very efficient in chicken and can be included in the growers ration up to a level of 12%.
(i) Maize:
It is one of the most abundantly used grain in poultry rations due to its palatability and high energy content. It is poor in protein and mineral content. The yellow maize variety is a rich source of carotene and manthophyll, a pigment deposited in broilers and egg yolk.
Maize contains good amount of starch, but less fibre, some proteins and plenty of vitamin-A. It can be mixed up to 60% poultry ration depending upon the category of birds to be fed, availability and the prevailing cost maize is good for fattening broilers, when mixed with wheat. It should not be exclusively fed to layers, as fattening will tend to lower the egg production.
(ii) Barley:
It is less palatable and contains more fibre and low energy as compared to maize. Birds not accustomed to barley do not consume it readily, as it takes time for them to get adjusted to it. However, it can be included in the diet at the level of 20-40%.
(iii) Oats:
Oats have high fibre, lower energy content in comparison to maize and wheat. Oats can be used for pullet developer feeds (low energy feeds) and broiler breeder replacement, up to a level of 10-20% in the diet. Inclusion of oats in the ration, reduces the incidence of cannibalism, i.e., the habit of packing at each other feather picking and hock disorders, because of the fibre and manganese content in them.
(iv) Sorghum:
Sorghum is higher in protein content as compared to maize, but lower in energy content. Light yellow coloured sorghum grains are preferred in case of domestic fowl. It can be included at a level of 25-40% in the diet.
(v) Other Millets:
Coarse grains like pearl millet and ragi are commonly fed to the poultry alone ox mixed with other grains, as it is usually available in plenty at a comparatively cheaper price. It may contain traces of hydrocyanic acid which may become toxic depending upon the individual susceptibility.
It is not, therefore, advisable to use them in poultry feed on a mass scale, though it can be fed to the village birds by scattering them on the ground, where the birds have a chance to pick up many other grains and greens which may dilute or even neutralise the toxic action of millet, if any.
(vi) Wheat and Wheat Bran:
Wheat has a better feeding value as compared to barley and oats. It is highly palatable, digestible and a good source of B-complex vitamins. Broken wheat, a byproduct of wheat flour mill can be used, even up to a level of 50% in the diet of the broilers but for the layers about 10-15% mixed with other grains will be beneficial. Wheat bran is the coarse outer covering of the wheat kernel. It is palatable but bulky. It is an excellent source of manganese, iron and a good source of riboflavin, pantothenic acid, choline, niacin and thiamine.
(vii) Rice and its By-Products:
It is a highly palatable and digestible grain. It is not used widely due to its high cost and usage for mankind. Broken rice, if available at economic cost can be used.
Rice can be fed raw but not as boiled plain rice. Boiled rice can be mixed with other feeds and fed more as starch feed to fill the crop.
Rice bran is the pericarp of the grain and rice polish is the finely powdered material obtained in polishing rice after the hulls the bran have been removed. Good quality rice polishing is rich in energy. These are excellent sources for many vitamins particularly, thiamine and niacin. The rice bran rice polish has a high fat content and thus develops rancidity during storage.
(viii) Tapioca:
It is obtained from the tubers of tapioca. The meal is a good source of energy. Certain varieties contain some toxic substances which can be removed during the processing of tapioca by sun-drying or heating. It can be safely included up to a level of 10-20% in the diet.
(ix) Hominy Feed:
It is the by-product produced during the dry milling of maize I for human consumption. This consists of bran, grain and a bit of starchy part of kernels.
Though it resembles maize in composition, its use is limited due to high fibre content and lower energy value. Its maximum level of inclusion in the chicken diet is 10%.
(x) Salseed:
It is a by-product obtained from the processing of sal’s fruit for oil and is available in large quantities. The composition of the meal resembles the cereals and is a good source of energy. Unfortunately, its use is limited to only 3-5% in the poultry diet because of high tannin content and certain other factors in the meal.
(ix) Dried Poultry Wastes:
Uncontaminated caged layer droppings can be collected which can serve as a feed ingredient for the poultry, though it has not become popular.
The composition varies depending on the type of feed fed, but it is generally high in calcium and phosphorus, containing about 10-12% ingredient, it can be included in the diet upto 10% without any detrimental effect.
(xii) Molasses:
It is a by-product in the manufacture of sugar. It may be used to replace cereal grains upto 5-10% of the ration.
Higher percentage usually produces loose excreta because of high potassium content a certain minimum amount of molasses is desirable in the ration because it improves the palatability of diet and reduces the dustiness of feed. It is rich in vitamin B-complex.
(xiii) Prosomillet:
(Common millet) Recent investigations have revealed that 50% and 100% replacement of maize is possible in a chick ration by prosomillet grains.
First, it reduces the cost of feeding in the starter ration and secondly the body weight gain in the chicken is faster than when fed solely on a maize included-diet. The fibre content is higher in prosomillet than in millet.
2. Protein Feed:
Protein sources are used mainly for the supply of protein. They also contribute to one-third of the total energy- requirement animal protein sources are superior in terms of protein quality to vegetable proteins. They contain higher levels of limiting amino acids (lysine and methionine) than vegetable protein sources and are employed to make up the amino acids of the diet, balanced.
(i) Groundnut Cake:
It is one of the richest vegetable protein concentrates available, highly palatable and used extensively in the rations. It is low in certain essential amino acids like lysine, methionine and cystine but high in others like arginine. It can be used in the diet upto a level of 40%. The deoiled groundnut meal is slightly rich in protein, but low in energy and can be used upto 20% in the poultry diet.
(ii) Cottonseed Cake:
It has a high protein content but is deficient in lysine. It is used to a limited extent (upto 5%) due to the presence of free gossypol, which is responsible for causing depression in the growth of young chicken and produce discoloured yolks in stored eggs. It has to be de-gossypolised before use.
(iii) Sesame Cake:
It is similar to groundnut meal in composition. The combination II of sesame meal with groundnut meal forms a good protein ii supplement.
(iv) Soybean Cake:
It is an excellent source of vegetable protein, rich in lysine, but deficient in methionine. It can be used to the extent of 40% in the poultry diet it has an anti-nutritional factor known as antitrypsin in the meal.
(v) Sunflower Cake:
The protein content of sunflower meal is slightly lower than that of groundnut meal, but the protein is of good quality. It is a good source of arginine and methionine than soybean, but is poor in other essential amino acids.
(vi) Coconut Cake:
It contains about 20% protein. It can be fed upto a level of 10% for chicks and 15 for layers. The protein of coconut meal is poorly digested. Though it is non-toxic, it is not a highly desirable feed stuff for poultry.
(vii) Mustard Cake:
Though available in plenty, it is used in a limited quantity (5-10% of diet). The protein is deficient in lysine. It has a strong taste and aroma and contains toxic glycosides.
(viii) Guar Cake:
The meal is rich in protein but its use is limited because of residual guar gum and presence of certain toxic substances.
(ix) Linseed Cake:
The linseed meal contains small quantity of essential fatty acids. It also acts as a mild laxative. The meal contains certain toxic substances and cannot be used more than 2-3% unless processed. It can rendered non-toxic by boiling and can be incorporated in the diet upto a level of 20%.
(x) Blood Meal:
It is an animal protein source with high lysine content. The amino acid composition of blood meal is imbalanced, unpalatable and their digestibility is poor. Because of these reasons, blood meal is used at a low level, i.e., 1-2%.
(xi) Fish Meal:
It is manufactured from clean dried and ground tissues of un-decomposed whole fish, with or without extraction of part of the oil and contains not more than 3% common salt fish meal is the best of source of high quality protein. It is highest in all the required amino acids and is a good source of calcium, phosphorus and certain vitamins. It can be used at a maximum level of 10%.
(xii) Meat Meal:
The meat is a good source of high quality protein and important source of calcium and phosphorus. It can constitute 5-10% of the diet.
3. Minerals Feed:
The body of the chicken and the egg excluding the shell contain nearly 4% and 1 % of mineral matter, respectively. Usually, the grain and vegetable protein ingredients are relatively poor in mineral contents when compared with those of animal protein feed stuffs.
The common mineral supplements in poultry feed are as follows:
(i) Limestone
(ii) Bonemeal
(iii) Oyster shell
(iv) Common salt
(v) Dicalcium phosphate
(vi) Manganese sulphate
(vii) Potassium iodide
(viii) Superphosphate.
An all mash feed should consist of 0.5% common salt, while the mash portion of a mash-cum-grained should contain 1% salt. A simple, cheap and satisfactory mineral mixture consists of the following ingredients.
A more complete and efficient mineral mixture consists of the following ingredients:
These ingredients can be bought by the poultry farmer himself and mixed at home. Many commercial mineral mixtures are also available in the market, wherein all necessary minerals are mixed in standard proportion and if such mixtures are used, there is no need of mixing individual minerals separately in the feed.
4. Vitamins Feed:
Leaf-meals either fresh or dehydrated can be employed to provide certain vitamins. Yeast can be used to provide some of the B-complex group of vitamins. Fish oils provide vitamin-A and D.
Now-a-days, the vitamins in pure form are being used to increase the nutritional levels of vitamins which may be deficient in diets.
Under ordinary farm conditions, where the poultry have access to green pasture and direct sunshine, vitamin requirement is easily met. Under other conditions they will have to be supplemented. Special care must be taken to see that they are supplied in sufficient amounts.
6. Nutrition Required for Poultry (Boiler) Growth:
Broiler is a young chicken, usually 6-12 weeks of age of either I sex specially raised for meat production. Because of the need to obtain rapid growth in broiler, their nutrient requirements are higher than the chicken being raised for egg production.
On the basis of growth rate, the broiler nutrition can be divided into two phases:
(a) 0-5 weeks starter phase
(b) 6-9 weeks finisher stage
In practice, diets for starter broilers (0-5 weeks) should contain 3100-3400 kcal ME per kg, for maximum growth rate. Finisher diets (6th week onwards) are recommended to have energy level of 3400 kcal ME per kg feed.
Feeding of the high protein pre-starter diets is beneficial since, it gives a stimulus for the early growth of the broiler. Since, the quality of a protein depends upon its constituent amino acids it is necessary to know the minimum quantities of the amino acids in the broiler diets.
i. Broiler Starter Ration (1-5 Weeks):
ii. Broiler Finisher Ration (6-9 Weeks):
iii. Desi Birds Diet:
Desi birds in the village home-units run on range and pickings. If there are only a few birds, they can get enough feed to pick and make up a balanced ration from waste grains, shed seeds, maggots, cow dung, bones, insect, green pickings, meat and kitchen wastes, vegetable tops and prunings, wastes at weekly markets etc.
When they get good pickings, poultry pay well. But kitchen scraps and vegetable trimmings cannot meet the requirements of layers. These may be useful in supplementing other more appropriate feeds.
It is essential for the profitable production of good quality eggs that layers are fed with a diet containing the correct balance of energy, proteins, vitamins and mineral ingredients.
The desi birds should be given a small quantity of mixed ration daily to provide very cheap and balanced feeding. The village birds will combine this with feeds available in the fields when they are let out, to make a balanced feed. This way the bird will lay more number of eggs and compared to the expenditure on feed, the profits will be more.
Alternately, the birds can be given broken maze, paddy or ragi grains about 1 kg for 20-40 birds daily and permit them to run outside freely on range. This may cost very little, but one can get, 25-50% more number of eggs that the birds on completely free range, but again not as much as the same birds would give on deep litter feeding on full mash ration.
Therefore, for the backyard units of desi birds, it is better to give them some feed mixtures and then they are let loose on the fields for supplementing the given feed. These birds have an innate capacity to pick and eat only those ingredients as are required by their nutrition status, e.g., if high quality protein is missing from the diet, then the birds will selectively pick and feed on the insects or worms to balance their diet.
Given below are the examples of feed mixtures for the desi birds:
(a) For Chicks and Growers:
(b) For Layers:
Rice bran can substitute wheat bran. Pulses can substitute wheat for better results.
7. Feeding Management During the Rearing of Poultry:
A sound feeding programme during the rearing of poultry is essential for the production of high quality chicks without much mortality.
1. Quantity to be Fed:
Quantity of the mixed ration to be fed depends upon the age groups of poultry. For the chicks of 0.2 weeks, finely broken rice or other small grains or bread crumbs are given are the first feed. Skimmed milk or butter milk should be supplied for drinking instead of plain water all the time.
(i) After a Week:
Chick mash is introduced which is specially prepared with finely broken grains of rice, ragi, cambu, wheat or maize, with aquatic quantities of vitamins, minerals, antibiotic feed supplements and coccidiostat.
(ii) After 2 Weeks:
The quantity of chick feed is increased gradually. After 6 weeks, wet mash is introduced along with succulent, well chopped greens like Lucerne. Some onions and garlic well chopped may also be included. The quantity required of chick will vary from 10-50 g per chick according to their age (0-8 weeks).
(iii) After 8 Weeks:
The chick mash must be gradually substituted by grower mash, enriched with vitamins and minerals including all the essential nutrients for healthy growth at an economical cost. Quantity fed varies from 50-80 g per grower per day according to age (8-20 weeks).
(iv) At about 18th Week:
Specially prepared layer mash fully vitaminised and mineralised is introduced. Plenty of well chopped greens and water is also provided. Feeding pellets instead of mash will prove more economical and neat. 80-200 g per bird per day is fed to the bird, depending on its body weight and production capacity.
2. Time of Feeding:
Regularity of feeding is also important as the birds will soon learn and expect to have their feed in the punctual time, if they are in good health. The chicks are fed 5-6 times a day in small quantities upto 8 weeks of age. For the backyard units, the birds should preferably be let out early in the morning (just before sunrise) after providing them with clean drinking water.
A little later, some grains about 15 g per bird can be thrown out for the birds to pick. Just before noon, some greens or vegetable pruning or kitchen trimmings can be fed, well chopped and mixed with mash. Late in the evening, some more grains similar to the early morning feed can be given. This will tempt all birds to return to their right shelter after the day’s roaming.
8. Systems of Poultry Housing:
There are four systems of housing generally found to be followed among poultry keepers. The type of housing depends to a large extent on the amount of ground and the capital available. Those systems are free range or extensive system, semi-intensive system, folding unit system and intensive system. Intensive system is again of two types viz. battery system and deep litter system.
1. Free Range System:
Free range system of poultry housing is very old and has been used for centuries by general farmers, where there is no shortage of land. This system allows great, but not unlimited, space to the birds on land where they can find an appreciable amount of food in the form of herbaceous seeds and insects, provided they are protected from predatory animals and infectious diseases including parasitic infestation. At present, due to advantages of intensive methods, this system is almost outdated.
2. Semi-Intensive System:
This system is adopted where the amount of free space available is limited, but it is necessary to allow the birds 20-30 square yards per bird of outside run. Wherever possible this space should be divided giving a run on either side of the house of 10-15 square yards per bird, thus enabling the birds to reach fresh grounds.
3. Folding Unit System:
This system of housing is a recent innovation. In portable folding units birds being confined to one small run, the position is changed each day. This gives them fresh grounds and the birds find a considerable proportion of food from the herbage and are healthier and hardier. The disadvantages of this system are that food and water must be carried out to the birds and eggs brought back and there is some extra labour involved in the regular moving of the fold units.
The most convenient folding unit to handle is one which is made for 25 hens. A floor space of 1 sq ft should be allowed for each bird in the house and 3 sq ft in the run, so that a total floor space to the whole unit is 4 sq ft per bird, as with the intensive system.
4. Intensive System:
In this system the birds are confined to the house entirely, with no access to the land outside. It is usually adopted where land is limited and expensive. Among different types of intensive systems, cage system and deep litter system are the most common.
(i) Battery or Cage System:
This is the most intensive type of poultry production and is useful to those with only a small quantity of floor space at their disposal.
Now-a-days in large cities hardly a poultry keeper can spare open lands to rearing birds. For all such people this system is very useful for keeping birds with minimum space. In the battery system each hen is confined to a cage just large enough to permit very limited movement and allow her to stand and sit comfortably. The usual floor space is 14 x 16 inches and the height, 17 inches.
The floor is of standard strong galvanised wire set at a slope from back to the front, so that the eggs as they are laid, rollout of the cage to a receiving gutter. Underneath is a tray for droppings. Both food and water receptacles are outside the cage.
(ii) Deep Litter System:
In this system, the poultry birds are kept in large pens up to 250 birds each on floor covered with litters, such as straw, saw dust or leaves up to depth of 8-12 inches. Deep litter resembles dry compost.
In other words, we can define deep litre with poultry manure until it reaches a depth of 8-12 inches. The buildup has to be carried out correctly to give desired results which takes very little attention. .
Advantages Keeping Poultry in Laying Cages:
(i) Positive and prompt culling is possible.
(ii) Culls can be put into the market in better condition since they can be spotted before they lose weight.
(iii) Somewhat higher egg production per bird since each hen has constant access to feed and water.
(iv) Feed consumption for per dozen eggs is somewhat less since the hen wastes less energy in exercise.
(v) Elimination of cannibalism.
(vi) About one-third less floor space is required for layers in batteries.
(vii) Both leghorns and heavier breeds respond favourably in laying batteries.
Disadvantages of Keeping Poultry in Laying Cages:
(i) There is higher initial investment per bird on the cages, although it eliminates the necessity of buying feeders, waterers, nests or building perches which are necessary for the birds on the floor.
(ii) Greater skill and care in feeding are required for layers in batteries although the nutrient requirement for layers in cages are much the same as for those in floor pens, except for vitamin-D and fibre requirement, which are generally greater for layers in batteries.
(iii) Labour requirement for feeding and watering layers in batteries are considerably greater than for floor pens equipped with labour saving equipment.
(iv) The battery operator to be successful must always be very alert as a care taker and as a businessman.
9. Incubation of Poultry Animals:
Hatching of eggs refers to the production of baby chicks. In early days eggs were hatched by placing them under broody hens. Desi hens proved to be ideal for this purpose. Only 10-12 eggs can be put under 1 hen.
This method of hatching is highly unsatisfactory for large scale production of baby chicks. Incubators, which provide similar environment as that of broody hens, but more efficiently, are used at present for hatching of eggs.
The physical factors necessary for successful incubation are temperature, humidity, gaseous environment and turning of eggs. Optimum and uniform temperature inside the incubator is very essential for obtaining satisfactory results.
The incubator temperature should be maintained as recommended by the manufacturer. It usually varies from 99.5°-100.5°F (37.2°C – 37.8°C) for forced draft type incubators and about 1°F higher for still air incubators.
Low temperature slows down the development of embryo and higher than optimum temperature hastens the embryonic development. When abnormal temperature conditions extend over a long period, hatchability is adversely affected by increase in embryonic mortality and weak and deformed chicks.
Humidity in the incubator affects hatchability. Dry and wet bulb thermometers are used for measuring humidity. In fowls egg takes about 21 days to hatch. The relative humidity should be around 60% during the first 18 days of incubation and 70% in the last 3 days for optimum hatchability. In the forced draft type incubators the temperature requirement decreases as the humidity increases.
Fertile eggs are loaded into the incubator with broad end up. Hatchability decreases when eggs are placed in the incubator with narrow end up as the embryo develops with its head in the small end. Turning or eggs in the incubator improves hatchability.
Eggs should be turned at least 4 times during a day when turning is done by hand. Modem incubators are provided with devices for automatic turning of eggs at least 8 times or more during 24 h. In this egg trays turn through an angle of 90°. No turning is required after 18 days of incubation.
Use of separate hatcher improves hatchability. When separate hatcher is used temperature is maintained at about 98°F and relative humidity at 70-80% to obtain good hatch. Use of separate hatcher facilitates cleaning, disinfection and fumigation without disturbing other eggs.
Testing of Incubated Eggs:
The eggs are candled from 5th-17th days of incubation to remove infertile eggs and on 18th day to remove dead germs. Although infertile eggs or eggs with dead germ do not serve any useful purpose, removed of such eggs from the incubator makes the room available for setting of more eggs.
In most commercial establishments, candling is done on 17th or 18th day of incubation to save labour. Depending upon the passage of light through the egg, the eggs are classified as infertile when transparent, dead germ when translucent and eggs with live embryos when opaque.
Eggs with live embryos only are transferred to the hatcher. For pedigree hatching of eggs they are to be set sire and dam wise in the incubator and also should be placed in the hatcher compartment wise, one compartment for each dam.
Hatchery Management:
At the beginning of hatching season the incubator and hatchers should be thoroughly checked for their functioning and defects, if any rectified.
They should be properly cleaned, disinfected and fumigated to kill disease organisms before storing and after transfer of eggs to the hatcher. This reduces the incidence and spread of diseases.
Fumigation is usually done with formaldehyde gas using 40 mL of 40% commercial formalin and 20 g of potassium permanganate for each 2.8 m3 of space inside the incubator or hatcher. It may be placed in a glass or earthenware container and formalin poured over it.
Fumigation should preferably be done at the end of the working day and then the rooms closed. It is a good practice to start the incubator and the hatcher at least 24 h before setting the eggs to maintain a constant temperature.