India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of spices and spice products in the world. Over 100 plant species are known to yield spices and spice products, among which about 50 are grown in India. The spice production in India is currently (2012-13) at 5.74 million tonnes from an area of about 3.08 million ha.
Pepper is considered to be the ‘king of spices,’ and cardamom the ‘queen of spices’. In India, pepper covers 1,25,000 ha with an annual production of 53,000 tonnes. Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu produce more than 90 per cent pepper. Cardamom (small) is also grown in these three states of India over 92,000 hectares of land, with a total production of 18,000 tonnes in a year.
In India, large cardamom is mainly cultivated in Sikkim and West Bengal over an area of 30.039 ha producing 5401 tonnes of cardamoms. Ginger is grown in almost all the states and the total acreage of this crop is about 1.36 lakh ha and the annual production is 6.83 lakh tonnes of dry ginger.
Turmeric is grown in many states and covers an area of 1,94,000 hectares with an annual production of 9,71,400 tonnes. Chilli occupies an area of 7.94 lakh hectars in India with an average annual production of 13.04 lakh tonnes. India produces half the production of chilli in the world.
Since spices come from different kinds of plants, belonging to a number of families, the pests that have adapted themselves to feeding on these aromatic plants are also of different types. Apart from the field pests of the spice plants, a number of insect pests of stored products also damage spices in storage.
Pests of Cardamom (Ellettaria Cardamomum L.; Family: Zingiberaceae):
About 56 species of insects and mites have been reported to attack cardamom in India.
1. Banana Aphid, Pentalonia Nigronervosa Coquerel (Hemiptera: Aphididae):
The banana aphid is more or less pantropical in distribution and is of common occurrence in southern parts of India, Sri Lanka and Australia. In addition to banana, it also feeds on small and large cardamom, Colocasia sp., Alocasia sp. and Caladium sp.
The wingless aphid is dark brown pyriform measuring 1.34 mm in length and with six segmented antennae which are longer than the body. Abdomen is dark brown, shining and slightly bulged. The winged form is dark brown, elongated and pyriform. They are longer than the wingless forms but with less body width.
Life-Cycle:
The reproduction takes place parthenogenetically. The longevity of adult varies from 8 to 26 days with an average of 14 days. A single female lays 8-28 offsprings with an average of 14. A single female may produce as many as four offsprings in 24 hours. The development is completed through three and four moults taking 12.6 and 15 days, respectively from November till January. There are 21-24 generations in a year.
Damage:
The aphids feed on the leaf sheath and pseudostem. The insect causes little direct damage but is of considerable significance being vector of cardamom mosaic (Kattle disease), Amomum mosaic and Foorky disease of large cardamom. The aphids are disseminated in cardamom plantation mostly by crawling from plant by the contact of foliage at the top and along the soil.
Control:
Spray 300 ml of phosphamidon 85WSC or 875 ml of dimethoate 30EC in 250 litres of water per ha at an interval of two weeks.
2. Cardamom Thrips, Sciothrips Cardamomi (Ramkrishna Ayyar) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae):
The cardamom thrips is the most destructive pest of cardamom in South India. The adult is greyish-brown and measures 1.25-1.50 mm in length.
Life-Cycle:
The pest is active throughout the year except during the monsoon season. The female lays 5-71 eggs at random on all the feeding areas of the plant. The young nymphs emerge from the eggs in 9-12 days. The first two nymphal instars are active and grow by feeding on the plant sap. Life-cycle is completed in 25-30 days.
Damage:
The thrips cause damage by sucking cell sap. It feeds on tender blossoms and the bunch pods of cardamom. The attack on the flower stalk results in shedding of flowers. The panicle stalks also become stunted and do not bear flowers.
Control:
Spray 875 ml of dimethoate 30EC or 1.0 litre of quinalphos 25EC in 250 litres of water per ha.
3. Castor Capsule Borer, Conogethes Punctiferalis Guenee (Leidoptera: Pyralidae):
The castor capsule borer is a serious pest of nursery plants and young green pods of cardamom also. In the nursery plants, it bores into the stem and causes the death of the central shoot. It also eats away the tender seeds of the young berries.
4. Cardamom Hairy Caterpillars:
(i) Lenodera Vittata Walker (Lepidoptera: Lesiocampidae):
The hairy caterpillars are commonly found feeding on cardamom in South India. The moth is stout and fairly big and densely covered with scales. The larvae are clothed with a dense felt of capitate hairs and measure 106-110 mm in length.
Life-Cycle:
The moths emerge in June and lay cream coloured dome shaped eggs in rows on both the upper and the lower surface of leaves. A female lays 100-130 eggs during an oviposition period 6-9 days. The young larvae emerge from the eggs in 10-13 days.
The larvae start feeding on the leaves and other tender parts of the plant and moult six times during the larval period of 112-118 days. Pupation takes place in the soil in an earthen cell, in which it stays for 5-7 months. There is only one generation in a year. The larvae are parasitized by a tachinid fly, Carcelia kockiana (Tachinidae).
Damage:
The caterpillars are voracious feeders and cause extensive damage to the cardamom plants from August to December by feeding on leaves. Only the pseudostems and midribs remain un-eaten.
(ii) Eupterote cardamomi Ranga Ayyar (Lepidoptera: Bombycidae):
E. cardamomi is a sporadic pest of cardamom in South India. The adults are large moths, ocherous in colour, with post medial lines on the wings. They measure 70-80 mm in wing expanse. The larvae are hairy, dark grey in colour with pale brown head, bearing conical tufts of hairs on the dorsal side of the body. When full-grown the caterpillar measures 90 mm in length.
Life-Cycle:
The moths emerge with the commencement of the South-West monsoon rains in June and July. The female moths lay 400-500, yellowish and dome-shaped eggs in flat masses on the undersurface of leaves. Each egg mass contains about 50-160 eggs. The hatching of eggs occurs in 15-17 days. The larva passes through ten instars in 140-151 days. It pupates in the soil in a silken cocoon at a depth of 5-8 cm for 7- 8 months. The moth lives for about 20 days. There is only one generation in year.
Larvae are parasitized by Sturmia sericariae (Tachindae) and Aphanisles eupterote D. (Ichneumonidae).
Damage:
The larvae feed on leaves of the shade trees up to the 6th or 7th instar and then they drop drown on the cardamom plants growing underneath, with the help of silken threads. They start feeding on the leaves voraciously and defoliate the cardamom plants causing heavy reduction in the yield.
(iii) Eupterote Canarica Moore, E. Testacea Walker, and E. Fabia Cramer (Lepidoptera: Bombycidae):
These hairy caterpillars also appear sporadically and cause damage to cardamom plants.
Management:
Spray 500 ml of malathion 50EC or 500 g of carbaryl 50WP in 250 litres of water per ha.
5. Rhizome Weevil, Prodioctes Haematicus Chevrolat (Coleoptera: Curculionidae):
The rhizome weevil is found widely on cardamom plants in various States of South India. The adult is a brown weevil measuring 12 mm in length.
Life-Cycle:
The weevils emerge in large numbers in April, soon after an early shower of the monsoons. The eggs are laid in cavities made on rhizomes. The young grubs come out of the eggs in 8-10 days and bore into the rhizome, making tunnels. The larvae feed inside the rhizomes and become full-fed in three weeks. They pupate within the feeding tunnels for another 3 weeks. On emergence, the adult weevils live for 7-8 months. There is only one generation in a year.
Damage:
The severe tunnelling and feeding by grubs inside the rhizomes results in the death of entire clumps of the cardamom plants.
Control:
(i) Destroy affected plants/seedings.
(ii) If the grub population is more in the soil, drench the base of the clamp with 1.25 litres of malathion 50EC or 1.25 kg of carbaryl 50WP in 625 litres of water per ha.
Other Pests of Cardamom:
The cardamom plants are also attacked by a number of pests like the root grub, Basilepta fulvicorne Jacoby (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) wingless grasshopper, Orthacris sp. (Orthoptera: Acrididae); the leaf-hopper, Tettigoniella femiginea (Fabricius) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae); the spittle bug, Aphrophora nuwarans Distant (Hemiptera: Aphrophoridae); the banana lacewing bug, Stephanitis typica (Distant) (Hemiptera: Tingidae); Riptortus peclestris (Fabricius). (Hemiptera: Coreidae); the cardamom thrips, Leewania maculans Pr. and Sesh. (Thysanoptera: Thripidae); the bag worm, Acanthopsyche bipar Walker (Lepidoptera: Psychidae); the root borer, Hilarographa caminodes Meyr (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae); the cutworm, Areilasisa plagiata M. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae); Attacus atlas Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Saturnidae); Homona sp. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae); the looper caterpillar, Anisodes denticulatus Hampson (Lepidoptera: Geometridae); Lampides elpis Godart (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae); Euproctis lutifacia Hampson (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) and the root gall midge, Hallomyia cardamomi Nayar (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae).
Pests of Large Cardamom (Amomum Subulatum Roxburgh; Family: Zingiberaceae):
Although there is no major pest attacking large cardamom but aphids and thrips are considered to be quite important.
Grapevine Thrips, Rhipiphorothrips Cruentatus Hood (Thysanoptera: Heliothripidae):
This thrips infests the leaves, which turn brown and wither gradually.
In addition, the other minor pests of large cardamom include the aphid, Rhophalosiphum maidis Fitch (Hemiptera: Aphididae), which transmits the virus causing the “Chirke” disease in West Bengal; the leaf caterpillar, Clelea plumbiola Hmp. (Lepidoptera: Zygaenidae), which feeds on the green matter of leaves.
Pests of Chillies (Capsicum Annuum L.; Family: Solanaceae):
More than 20 insect species have been recorded attacking both leaves and fruits of chilli.
1. Chillies Thrips, Scirtothrips Dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae):
The chillies thrips is a polyphagous pest and is widely distributed in India. It feeds on a number of plants including chillies, tomato, castor, sunflower, cotton, mango, citrus and Acacia arabica L. The adults are slender, yellowish brown in colour, having apically pointed wings, and they measure about 1 mm in length. The females possess long, narrow wings with the fore margin fringed with long hairs. The nymphs resemble the adults in shape and colour but are wingless and smaller in size.
Life-Cycle:
This pest is active throughout the year except during the rainy season. The female thrips lays 45-50 eggs inside the tissues of the leaves and shoots. The eggs hatch in 5 days. The larvae feed for 7-8 days and pupate in 2-4 days. The adult thrips lives for about 31 days. There are several over-lapping generations of this pest in a year.
Damage:
Damage is caused by the adults as well as by the nymphs. They suck the cell sap from tender regions and cause the leaves to shrivel. In case of severe infestation, there is malformation of leaves, buds and fruits, which may damage half the crop. The attacked plants are stunted and may finally dry up. The insect is also responsible for transmitting the virus causing leaf curl disease of chillies’.
Control:
Spray 1.0 litre of malathion 50EC or 1.0 kg of carbaryl 50WP in 250-300 litres of water per ha.
2. White Grubs, Holotrichia Consanguinea Blanchard and H. Insularis Brenske (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae):
The chillies crop is seriously damaged by these insects in Rajasthan. Damage is caused by the grubs that feed on the roots.
Other Pests of Chillies:
The chillies crop is also attacked by a number of minor pests like Tricentrus bicolor Distant (Hemiptera: Membracidae); the aphid, Apliis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae); the thrips, Coliothrips indicus (Bagnall) and Frankliniella sulpliurea (Schmutz) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae); the stem borer, Euzophera perticella Ragonot (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae); fruit borers, Spodoptera exigua (Hubner), S. litura (Fabricius) and Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae); Anomcila bengalensis (Blanchard) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae); the root grub, Arthrodeis sp. (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) and the mite, Polyphagotarsoiiemus latus (Banks) (Acari: Trasonemidae).
Pests of Black Pepper (Piper Nigrum L.; Family: Piperaceae):
About 20 insect species have been recorded damaging pepper plantations.
PoIIu Beetle, Longitarsus Nigripennis (Motschulsky) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae):
The pollu beetle is a specific pest of black pepper in India occurring regularly in the plantations. Both the adults and the grubs cause damage to berries. The adult is a small shining, yellow and blue flea-beetle with stout hind legs. The full-grown grub is yellowish with a black head and it measures 5 mm in length.
Life-Cycle:
The adult beetles appear in July when the new tender berries appear on the plants. The females make shallow holes on the berries and lay 1-2 eggs in each hole. A female, on an average, lays about 100 eggs. The eggs hatch in 5 -8 days and the young grubs bore into the berry and feed for 20-32 days. Then they drop to the ground and pupate in an earthen cell in the soil at 5.0-7.6 cm depth. The adults emerge in 6-7 days after pupation. The total life-cycle is completed in 39-50 days. The insect completes four overlapping generations in a year.
Damage:
The grubs cause damage by boring into the berries and eating the contents completely in about 10 days. Each grub destroys at least 3-4 berries during the larval period. The attacked berries appear dark in colour, are hollow inside and crumble when pressed. The grubs may also eat into the spike and cause the entire distal region to dry up. The adults feed voraciously on tender leaves and make holes in them.
Control:
(i) Tilling the soil at the base of vines at regular intervals can reduce the population considerably.
(ii) Spray 1.5 litres of dimethoate 30EC or 2.0 litres of quinalphos 25EC in 500 litres of water per ha in late July and again in early October.
Other Pests of Black Pepper:
The pepper plant is also attacked by the whitefly, Aleurocanthus piperis Maskell (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae); Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell) and Planococcus citri (Risso) (Hemiptera : Pseudococcidae); the scales, Lepidosaphes piperis (Green), Marsipococcus marsupiale Green, Pinnaspis aspidistrae S. and Aspidiotus destructor Signoret (Hemiptera: Diaspididae); the thrips. Gynaikothrips karnyi Bagnall and Andrethrips flavipes Karny (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae); the vine shoot borer, Cydia hemidoxa Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae); Cricula trifenestrata Heffer. (Lepidoptera: Saturnidae); Cecidomyia malabarensis Felt (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae); Neculla pollinaria Baly and Pagria costatipennis Jacoby (Coleoptera: Alticidae).
Pests of Turmeric (Curcuma Longa L.; Family: Zingiberaceae):
1. Skipper Butterfly, Udaspes Folus Cramer (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae):
This is a common pest of turmeric. The adult is a brownish-black butterfly with 8 white spots on forewings and one large patch on hind wing. The full-grown larva is dark-green and measures 36 mm in length. A female lays about 50 eggs on leaves which hatch in 3-4 days.
The larva undergoes 5 instars during 12- 21 days and pupates in leaf-fold for 6-7 days. The larva which pupates in December emerges only in March. The insect is present in abundance during August to October. The damage is caused by the larvae which fold the leaves and feed on them.
Control:
(i) The pest can be kept under check by collecting the butterflies with the help of net and destroying them.
(ii) In case of severe infestation, spray 1.5 litres of quinalphos 25EC in 500 litres of water per ha.
2. Castor Capsule Borer, Conogethes Punctiferalis Guenee (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae):
The caterpillar enters into the aerial stem killing the central shoot which results in the appearance of ‘dead heart’.
3. Bihar Hairy Caterpillar, Spilarctia Obliqua (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae):
This pest damages the turmeric plants extensively in Bihar and Bengal States.
Other Pests of Turmeric:
The other insects which attack turmeric include the coccids, Aspidiotus hartii Cockerell (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) which infests the rhizome under storage; Aspidiotus cucumcie Gr.(Hemiptera : Diaspididae) which infests the plants; the banana lacewing-bug, Stephanitis typica (Distant) (Hemiptera: Tingidae); the leaf thrips, Anaphothrips sudanensis Trybom, Asprothrips indicus (Bagnall) and Panchaetothrips indicus (Bagnall) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae); the skipper butterfly, Udaspes folus Cr. (Lepidoptera: Hesperidae) and the beetle, Lema pracusta (F.) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae).
Pests of Ginger (Zingiber Officinale Roscoe; Family: Zingiberaceae):
Ginger is attacked by insect pests both in field and in storage.
1. Castor Capsule Borer, Conogethes Punctiferalis Guenee (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae):
The caterpillar bores into the aerial stem and kills it.
2. Scale, Aspidiotus Hartii Cockerell (Hemiptera: Diaspididae):
This is a small circular hard scale which infests the rhizome in large numbers. A female lays about 180 eggs under the scale which hatch within a day. The nymph takes about 30 days for its development. The male forms a pupa before emergence as the winged adult. The insect multiplies in large numbers on stored ginger rhizomes which shrink and dry up. Rhizomes in the field are also attacked by the scale and the infested plants look pale and dried up.
Other Pests of Ginger:
The ginger crop is also attacked by other minor pests like; Acrocercops irradians Meyr. (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae); the turmeric skipper, Udaspes folus Cramer (Lepidoptera: Hesperidae); the maggots of Calobata sp. (Diptera: Micropezidae) which bore into the rhizomes and roots; the maggots of Chalcidomyia atricornis Mall, and Formosina flavipes Mall. (Diptera: Chloropidae), Celyphus sp. (Diptera: Celyphidae) and rhizome fly, Mimegralla coeruleifrons (Dipteta: Micropezidae) which feed on the rhizomes and cause their rotting; the weevil, Hedychrous rufofasciatus M. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) which feeds on the leaves.
Pests of Coriander (Coriandrum Sativum L; Family: Umbelliferae):
The important pest of coriander is only whitefly.
Cotton Whitefly, Bemisia Tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae):
The nymphs suck sap of the plants and adversely affect their growth.
Other pests which are found on coriander plants are the aphid, Hyadophis coriandri (Das) (Hemiptera: Aphididae); the pentatomid bug, Agonoscelis nubila F. (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) and indigo caterpillar, Spodoptera exigua (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).
Pests of Cinnamon (Cinnamomum Zeylanicum Blume; Family: Lauraceae):
The cinnamon crop is attacked by a number of insect pests, but only cinnamon butterfly is considered to be the most destructive.
Cinnamon Butterfly, Chiiasia Clytia Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae):
Cinnamon butterfly is widely distributed in the cinnamon tracts of Sri Lanka and South India. The insect has been reported to feed on a number of wild species of cinnamon and other forest plants, viz. Alseodaphne semicarpifolia Nees, Litsaea sebifera, L. tomentosa, Machilis gamblei and Phoebe lanceolata Nees.
Freshly hatched larva is jet black in colour with white patches which later undergoes various changes in colour pattern. The upper side of adult moth is rich velvety brown, while on underside of the body; the colour varies from soft pale brown to rich dark velvety brown.
Life-Cycle:
The female butterfly lays eggs singly on the upper and lower surface of young leaves, petioles and even tender shoots. Eggs are small round and pale yellow in colour. The larvae hatch out in 3-5 days. The larva moults five times to complete its development in 12-18 days. The pupation takes place in rough silken padding on the stem prepared by the larva. The pupal period is completed in 11-13 days. The adults live for 3-5 days and the total life-cycle is completed in 24-36 days.
Damage:
After hatching, the first instar larva starts feeding on the lamina of the freshly emerged leaves. The later instars feed voraciously on the tender leaves leaving only the mid ribs with portion of veins. In case of severe infestation, the growth of the plant is adversely affected.
Other Pests of Cinnamon:
Other pests which attack cinnamon are the leaf psyllid, Pauropsylla depressa Crawford (Hemiptera: Psyllidae); the leaf-miner, Phyllocnistis chrysophthalina Stainton (Lepidopetra: Phyllocnistidae) and the tussock caterpillar, Dasychira mendosa (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae).