Everything you need to know about pomegranate cultivation, growth and production. Learn about:- 1. Introduction to Pomegranate 2. Climate and Soil Required for Cultivating pomegranate 3. Propagation 4. Planting 5. Pruning and Training 6. Manuring and Fertilization 7. Harvesting and Postharvest Management 8. Storage 9. Pests, Diseases and Disorders 10. Varieties 11. Uses.
Contents:
- Introduction to Pomegranate
- Climate and Soil Required for Cultivating Pomegranate
- Propagation of Pomegranate
- Planting of Pomegranate
- Pruning and Training of Pomegranate
- Manuring and Fertilization of Pomegranate
- Harvesting and Postharvest Management of Pomegranate
- Storage of Pomegranate
- Pests, Diseases and Disorders of Pomegranate
- Varieties of Pomegranate
- Uses of Pomegranate
1. Introduction to of Pomegranate:
Pomegranate (Punica granatum) belongs to family Punicaceae. It is a favourite table fruit in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. A native to Iran (Persia), it is originated from Central Asia, probably Persia, but is now common throughout the tropics and subtropics.
It was well known in the Mediterranean region in early historical times and seems well adapted to the semiarid parts of that area. The pomegranate was cultivated by the ancient Egyptians.
Dried fruits have been found in Bronze Age tombs. Moses had to assure the Israelites that they would still have pomegranates when they reached the Promised Land. The Greeks and Romans celebrated pomegranates. In India, it is being grown from Kanyakumari to Kashmir, but is cultivated commercial only in Maharashtra.
Small-scale plantations are also seen in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana. In India, it is considered as a crop of the arid and semi-arid regions because it withstands different soil and climatic stresses.
The pomegranate plant is a shrub in cultivation in this country, but in the tropics reaches the height of a small tree 10 to 15 feet high. The leaves are opposite, are sometimes alternate above, oblong or lanceolate, thick and with entire margin. The flowers are bright-red and are clustered in the axis of the upper leaves. The calyx is thick, leathery, adnate, with five to seven thick valvate sepals. The stamens are numerous, 3 inserted in the calyx tube.
The petals are normally the same number as the segments of the calyx and inserted in the mouth of the calyx-tube alternate with its segments. In the double flowers commonly cultivated the petals are of course indefinitely increased by transformation of the stamens.
The fruit, which has been prized for the pulp in which the seeds are imbedded, is about the size of an apple, smooth, with a thick skin, and is in reality the enlarged calyx surmounted by its persistent lobes. It is divided by thin divisions into a number of cells, each packed full of angular seeds contained in a juicy pulp.
2.
Climate and Soil Required for Cultivating Pomegranate:
Pomegranates do best in climates with long hot, dry summers and cool winters. The species is primarily mild-temperate to subtropical and naturally adapted to regions with cool winters and hot summers, but certain types are grown in home dooryards in tropical areas, such as various islands of the Bahamas and West Indies. The plant favors a semi-arid climate and is extremely drought tolerant.
The tree requires hot and dry climate during fruit development and ripening. It cannot produce sweet fruits unless the temperature is high for a sufficiently long period. Humid climate lowers the quality of fruits and increases incidence of fungal diseases.
The pomegranate tree is deciduous in areas of low winter temperature and an evergreen or partially deciduous in tropical and subtropical conditions. It can tolerate frost to a considerable extent in dormant stage, but is injured at temperature below – 11° C. Orchards can be established up to an altitude of 500 m.
Pomegranate can be grown on a wide range of soils. The plant can thrive on calcareous, alkaline soil and on deep, acidic loam and a wide range of soils in between these extremes. In northern India, it is spontaneous on rock-strewn gravel.
It prefers a well-drained, sandy-loam to deep loamy, or alluvial soils. It can also be grown on light soils. Quality and colour development in light soils is good but poor in heavy soils. It tolerates salinity up to 9.00 EC/MM and sodicity 6.78 ESP.
3. Propagation
of Pomegranate:
Pomegranates can be propagated by cuttings or by layering. Softwood cuttings taken in summer are easy to root, as are hardwood cuttings taken in winter. Although easy to grow from seeds, pomegranate seedlings cannot be expected to resemble their parents.
Pomegranate seeds germinate readily even when merely thrown onto the surface of loose soil and the seedlings spring up with vigor. However, to avoid seedling variation, selected cultivars are usually reproduced by means of hardwood cuttings 10 to 20 in (25-50 cm) long. Treatment with 50 ppm.
IBA acid and planting at a moisture level of 15.95% greatly enhances root development and survival. The cuttings are set in beds with 1 or 2 buds above the soil for 1 year, and then transplanted to the field. Grafting has never been successful but branches may be air-layered and suckers from a parent plant can be taken up and transplanted.
Pomegranate is difficult-to-root by cuttings. The cuttings black root-promoting cofactors, i.e., low sugar content, phenolic compounds and C: N ratio. Preconditioning of shoots during June-July by girdling and etiolation increases the level of root-promoting cofactors considerably.
Rooted cuttings or seedlings are set out in pre-fertilized pits 2 ft (60 cm) deep and wide and are spaced 12 to 18 ft (3.5-5.5 m) apart, depending on the fertility of the soil. Initially, the plants are cut back to 24 to 30 in (60-75 cm) in height and after they branch out the lower branches are pruned to provide a clear main stem.
Inasmuch as fruits are borne only at the tips of new growth, it is recommended that, for the first 3 years, the branches be judiciously shortened annually to encourage the maximum number of new shoots on all sides, prevent straggly development, and achieve a strong, well-framed plant. After the 3rd year, only suckers and dead branches are removed.
The wood younger than 6 months and older than 18 months is unsuitable for cuttings. One-season-old cuttings respond more favourably. Cuttings should be mature, 20-30 cm long and 6-12 mm thick. Rainy season is the ideal time to get maximum success.
Use of IAA and IBA (3,000 ppm) is superior to NAA in stimulating rooting. Cuttings treated with IBA (50 ppm) and 15.9% moisture level in the media give 90% rooting. Use of 2 N H2SO4 for pretreatment for 2 min. and then applying IBA (2,500 ppm) (quick dip) promotes profuse root system and better survival rate.
It is also propagated by air-layering or gootee. Air-layering during rainy season and November-December results in better success. Division of suckers in the dormant season which can be planted out direct into their permanent positions, though we prefer to put them up first and plant them out when they are growing away well in late spring or early summer. Treat cuttings with IBA (10,000 ppm) in Lanolin paste gives large number of roots/layer. Mound- layering can be carried out throughout the year.
4. Planting of Pomegranate:
The plants are planted using square system in spring (February-March) under irrigated facilities However, July-August is ideal time of planting in tropics. Pits should be prepared of 60 cm x 60 cm x 60 cm size before a month prior to planting and keep them open under sun for 15 days. From termites protection, dust 50 g of 5% BHC or Carbaryl dust on the bottom and sides. Fill the pits with the top soil mixed with 20 kg farmyard manure and 1 kg superphosphate. Plant cuttings/air-layers and water them immediately.
For temperate regions, high-density planting is recommended. Spacing from 4-6 m is optimum. The high-density plantation – 5 m x 2 m (1,000 plants/ha), 5 m x 3 m (666 plants/ha), 5 m x 4 m (500 plants/ha) and 5 m x 5 m 9400 plants/ha) – gives 2-2.5 times more yield than the normal planting distance (5 m x 5 m) in Deccan plateau.
5. Pruning and Training
of Pomegranate:
Pomegranate plans do not require pruning except removal of ground suckers, water shoots cross branches, dead and diseased twigs and giving a shape to the tree. Pomegranate fruits are borne terminally on short spurs, arising from matured shoots, which have the capacity to bear fruits for 3-4 years. With advance in age they decline. A little thinning and pruning of old spurs to encourage growth of new ones is required.
Some useful tips on pomegranate pruning are:
Pomegranate plants can be trained on a single-stem or in multi-stem system. The single-stem training has its own disadvantages. The plants have a tendency to produce ground suckers, making the plant bushy. As such it is rather difficult to train the plant to a single stem.
6. Manuring and Fertilization
of Pomegranate:
The plant is not very demanding in its nutritional requirements. Young plants need extra phosphorus to encourage good root development. Look for a fertilizer that has phosphorus, P, in it (the second number on the bag.) Apply recommended amount for plant per label directions in the soil at time of planting or at least during the first growing season.
Young trees should be fertilized every 2-3 months with a 6-6-3 NPK or similar analysis fertilizer. Apply ¼ lb. and gradually increase to about ½ lb. Thereafter, young trees should receive ½ lb. per application, per year of tree age, 3 – 4 times a year.
Bearing trees can be fertilized with 8-3-9 NPK or similar analysis, at rates of about ½ lb. per application per year of tree age. Microelements, particularly iron may be required for trees in alkaline soils. Application of 10 kg farmyard manure and 75 g ammonium sulphate to 5-year-old tree annually is adequate, whereas application of 50 kg farmyard manure and 3.5 kg oil cake or 1 kg sulphate of ammonia prior to flowering is ideal for healthy growth and fruiting.
The basal dose of farmyard manure @ 25-40 car-loads/ha besides the recommended doses of NPK should be applied to non-bearing trees in 3 split doses coinciding with growth flushes during January, June and September.
Since pomegranate plants take 4-5 years to come into bearing. Intercropping of vegetables, pulses or green manure crops is beneficial. In arid regions, intercropping is possible only during the rainy season, whereas winter vegetables are feasible in irrigated areas. During rainy season and until the harvest, the orchard should be weed-free.
For soil moisture conservation cover the soil with black polythene mulch or organic-matter mulch. In arid region, anti-transpirants (10% Kaolin, 10-5 m phenyl mercuric acetate, 1.5% power oil and 1% liquid paraffin) should be used to reduce transpiration and good yield.
The plant is highly drought tolerant, however, it gives good response to well irrigation. However, water requirement varies from season-to-season. For good fruit production, the plant must be irrigated. In Israel, brackish water is utilized with no adverse effect. For mrig bahar, first irrigation should be given during mid.
May followed by regular irrigation until the onset of monsoon. In post- monsoon period copious and regular irrigation is essential for better development of fruits and to avoid fruit-cracking. Drip irrigation can also be followed to economize water.
7. Harvesting and Postharvest Management
of Pomegranate:
Pomegranate being non-climacteric fruit should be picked when fully ripe. Harvesting of immature or over-mature fruits affects quality. The fruits ripen 6 to 7 months after flowering. In Israel, cultivar ‘Wonderful’ is deemed ready for harvest when the soluble solids (SSC) reach 15%. In California, maturity has been equated with 1.8% titratable acidity (TA) and SSC of 17% or more. The fruit cannot be ripened off the tree even with ethylene treatment.
Growers generally consider the fruit ready for harvest if it makes a metallic sound when tapped. The fruit must be picked before over maturity when it tends to crack open if rained upon or under certain conditions of atmospheric humidity, dehydration by winds, or insufficient irrigation. Of course, one might assume that ultimate splitting is the natural means of seed release and dispersal.
The fruits should not be pulled off but clipped close to the base so as to leave no stem to cause damage in handling and shipping. Appearance is important, especially in the United States where pomegranates may be purchased primarily to enhance table arrangements and other fall (harvest- time) decorations. Too much sun exposure causes sunscald-brown, russeted blemishes and roughening of the rind.
1. External red color (depending on cultivar)
2. Red color of juice (equal to or darker than Munsell color chart 5R-5/12)
3. Acidity of juice below 1.85%
1. Freedom from growth cracks, cuts, bruises, and decay.
2. Skin color and smoothness.
3. Flavor depends on sugar/acid ratio which varies among cultivars. A soluble solids content above 17% is desirable.
4. Tannin content below 0.25% is desirable.
5°C (41 °F) for up to 2 months; longer storage should be at 7.2°C (45°F) to avoid chilling injury.
90-95%; pomegranates are very susceptible to water loss resulting in shriveling of the skins. Storing fruit in plastic liners and waxing can reduce water loss, especially under conditions of lower relative humidity.
Pomegranate fruits should be graded on the basis of their weight, size and external (rind) colour.
The grades are:
The other types of grades are – 12-A and 12-B. The fruits weighing between 250 and 300 g with some spots belong to 12-B grade. The fruits of 12-A grade are generally preferred in southern and northern India. Though it is practically impossible to get all ‘A’ grade fruits, one can improve average grade by crop regulation.
About 60 fruits/tree is optimum crop load for pomegranate Ganesh.
8. Storage
of Pomegranate:
The fruit ships well, cushioned with paper or straw, in wooden crates or, for nearby markets, in baskets. Commercial California growers grade the fruits into 8 sizes, pack in layers, unwrapped but topped with shredded plastic, in covered wood boxes, precool rapidly, and ship in refrigerated trucks.
The pomegranate is equal to the apple in having a long storage life. It is best maintained at a temperature of 0°-5° C. The fruits improve in storage, become juicier and more flavorful; may be kept for a period of 7 months within this temperature range and at 80 to 85% relative humidity, without shrinking or spoiling. At 95% relative humidity, the fruit can be kept only 2 months at 5°C; for longer periods at 10°C.
After prolonged storage, internal breakdown is evidenced by faded, streaky pulp of flat flavor. ‘Wonderful’ pomegranates, stored in Israel for Christmas shipment to Europe, are subject to superficial browning (husk scald). Control has been achieved by delaying harvest and storing in 2% O2 at 2°C. Subsequent transfer to 20 °C dispels off- flavor from ethanol accumulation.
Rates of Ethylene Production:
Less than 0.1 μl/kg. hr at 10°C or lower. Less than 0.2 μl/kg. hr at 20°C.
Responses to Ethylene:
Exposure to ethylene at 1 ppm or higher stimulates respiration and ethylene production rates, but it does not affect their quality attributes. Pomegranates do not ripen after harvest and must be picked fully ripe to ensure the best eating quality.
Responses to Controlled Atmospheres (CA):
Very few studies of the responses of pomegranates to CA have been conducted. Storage in 2% O2 reduces chilling injury if pomegranates are kept below 5° C. In one study, pomegranates were stored successfully at 6°C in 3% O2 + 6% CO2 atmosphere for 6 months. In another study a combination of 5% O2 + 15% CO2 was found to be effective in decay control and scald prevention for up to 5 months at 7° C.
Pomegranates are packed in corrugated fibre-board boxes for easy handling. In a single box, 4-5 queen-sized fruits, 12 prince-sized and some of 12-A and 12-B grades may be packed. The white-coloured boxes having 5 piles are used for export purpose.
9. Pests, Diseases and Disorders of Pomegranate:
Pests:
The pomegranate butterfly, Virachola isocrates, lays eggs on flower-buds and the calyx of developing fruits; in a few days the caterpillars enter the fruit by way of the calyx. These fruit borers may cause loss of an entire crop unless the flowers are sprayed 2 times 30 days apart. A stem borer sometimes makes holes right through the branches. Twig dieback may be caused by either Pleuroplaconema or Ceuthospora Phyllosticta.
Discoloration of fruits and seeds results from infestation by Aspergillus castaneus. The fruits may be sometimes disfigured by Sphaceloma punicae. Dry rot from Phomopsis sp. or Zythia versoniana may destroy as much as 80% of the crop unless these organisms are controlled by appropriate spraying measures. Excessive rain during the ripening season may induce soft rot. A post-harvest rot caused by Alternaria solani was observed in India in 1974. It is particularly prevalent in cracked fruits.
Heart Rot:
This may be caused by Aspergillus spp. and Alternaria spp. Affected fruit show a slightly abnormal skin color, and internally a mass of blackened arils. The disease develops while the fruit is on the tree. Affected pomegranates can be detected and removed by sorters in the packinghouse.
Others:
Minor problems are leaf and fruit spot caused by Cercospora, Gloeosporium and Pestalotia sp.; also foliar damage by whitefly, thrips, mealybugs and scale insects; and defoliation by Euproctis spp. and Archyophora dentula. Termites may infest the trunk. In India, paper or plastic bags or other covers may be put over the fruits to protect them from borers, birds, bats and squirrels.
1. Chilling Injury:
External symptoms include brown discoloration of the skin and increased susceptibility to decay. Internal symptoms include a pale color of the arils (pulp around the seeds) and brown discoloration of the white segments separating the arils. Chilling injury occurs if pomegranates are exposed for longer than one month at temperatures between their freezing point -3 ° C and 5 ° C or longer than two months at 5 ° C.
2. Fruit Cracking:
Fruit cracking occurs under dry conditions. The fully- grown, mature cracked fruits though sweet, loose their keeping quality and become unfit for marketing due to fruit weight, grain weight and volume of juice. It occurs due to deficiency of calcium, boron and potash. There are some cultivars/strains – PS 75 K 3, Appuli, Shirvan, Burachni, Apsherconskil, Krasnyl, Sur-Anar, Kyrmyz-Kabukh and Francis-which are tolerant/resistant to cracking.
Cracking can be managed through maintaining soil moisture and not allowing wide variation in soil moisture depletion, cultivating tolerant types, applying copious and regular irrigation during fruiting season using Pinolene (5%) as vapour guard and GA3 (15 ppm) and applying boron (0.2%) reduces cracking of fruits and improve fruit colour.
3. Husk Scald:
Brown discoloration of the husk (without any internal symptoms on the arils or surrounding tissues) that occurs during storage for more than 3 months at 7° C or lower temperatures.
4. Internal Breakdown:
Disintegration of arils in matured pomegranates known as an internal break-down or blackening of arils is a serious malady. This disorder cannot be identified externally, whereas the arils become soft, light creamy-brown to dark blackish-brown and unfit for consumption. It is increasing rapidly in the pomegranate-growing pockets in western Maharashtra.
10. Varieties
of Pomegranate:
In India there are several named cultivars. Preference is usually given those with fleshy, juicy pulp around the seeds. Types with relatively soft seeds are often classed as seedless. Among the best are Bedana and Kandhari. Bedana is medium to large, with brownish or whitish rind, pulp pinkish-white, sweet, seeds soft. Kandhari is large, deep-red, with deep-pink or blood-red, sub-acid pulp and hard seeds.
Others include:
1. Ruby:
It is a hybrid from a 3-way cross between Ganesh x Kabul x Yercaud and Gulsha Rose Pink which has soft and red arils with good flavour. The plants are dwarf, prolific-bearer, providing uniformly red fruits.
2. Alandi (Vadki):
Fruit are of medium-size, with fleshy red or pink, sub-acid pulp, very hard seeds.
Co 1:
A high-yielding selection. Fruits are of medium size with attractive rind, soft seeds, higher pulp content and sweet taste.
3. Dholka:
Fruit large-sized, rind greenish-yellow, fleshy aril, pinkish-white with sweet juice and soft seeds. Medium-cropper. The plant is evergreen, non- suckering, desirable for commercial purposes in Delhi.
4. G 137:
This is a clonal selection from Ganesh. Fruit surface smooth, yellow with red tinge and are large-sized with deep pink and bold aril, sweet in taste, soft seeds and prolific-bearer. This is a distinct improvement over Ganesh in colour and size of aril and TSS.
5. Ganesh (GBI):
A selection from Alandi and was released in 1936 and renamed as Ganesh in 1970. Its fruits are medium-sized, with yellow, smooth surface and red tinge. The seeds are soft with pinkish aril. The juice tastes sweet. Very commonly grown in Maharashtra.
6. IIHR Selection:
A soft-seeded selection with good quality fruits and a heavy bearing capacity. It is a selection from the open-pollinated seedlings.
7. Jyoti:
This is a selection from mixed seedling population of Bassein Seedless and Dholka cultivars. The fruits are medium to large-sized, having attractive, yellowish-red, more fleshy and pink aril. Fruits are very sweet, soft- seeded and taste good. Yield moderate.
8. Kabul:
Large, with dark-red and pale-yellow rind; fleshy, dark-red, sweet, slightly bitter pulp.
9. Kandhari:
Fruit large-sized, rind deep red, fleshy testa, blood-red or deep pink with sweet, slightly acidic juice and hard seeds.
10. Mridula:
It is F1 progeny of a cross Ganes x Gul-e-Shah Red. Fruits are of medium size, rind smooth, dark red, seeds soft, juicy and sweet in taste. It is significantly superior cultivar to other commercially grown pomegranates.
11. Muscat Red:
It is small to medium, with thin or fairly thick rind, fleshy, juicy, medium-sweet pulp, soft or medium-hard seeds. The plant is a moderately prolific bearer.
12. Muscat White:
Fruits are large, creamy-white tinged with pink; thin rind; fleshy, cream-colored, sweet pulp; seeds medium-hard. Bears well. Desirable for commercial planting in Delhi.
13. Muskati Red:
Fruits small to medium-sized, rind medium thick, fleshy aril with moderately sweet juice, seeds not very hard. Yield poor.
14. P 23:
Fruit size is large, fleshy, aril pinkish-white, sweet in taste, seeds moderately hard It is grown in and around Kolhar region of Ahmednagar district. Fruit with smooth surface, yellow and with red tinge.
15. P 26:
Fruits are large-sized, rind yellowish-green with red tinge; fleshy, aril pinkish-white with moderately hard seeds and sweet juice.
16. Paper Shell:
It is round, medium to large, pale-yellow blushed with pink; with very thin rind, fleshy, reddish or pink, sweet, very juicy pulp and soft seeds. Bears heavily.
17. Paper Shelled:
Fruits medium-sized with pink aril of good quality, seeds soft.
18. Poona:
Large, with dark-red, gray or grayish-green rind, sometimes spotted, and orange-red or pink-and-red pulp.
19. Spanish Ruby:
It is round, small to medium or large; bright-red, with thin rind, fleshy, rose-colored, sweet, aromatic pulp, and small to medium, fairly soft seeds. Considered medium in quality. Small to medium-sized fruits and soft seeds.
The Japanese dwarf pomegranate, P. granatum var. nana, is especially hardy and widely grown as an ornamental in pots. The flowers are scarlet, the fruit only 2 in (5 cm) wide but borne abundantly. Among other ornamental cultivars are ‘Multiplex’ with double, creamy white blooms; Chico, double, orange-red; Pleniflora, double, red; Rubra Plena, double, red; Mme. Legrelle and ‘Variegata’, double, scarlet bordered and streaked with yellowish-white.
20. Vellodu:
It is medium to large, with medium-thick rind, fleshy, juicy pulp and medium-hard seeds.
21. Wonderful:
It is originated as a cutting in Florida and propagated in California in 1896. The fruit is oblate, very large, dark purple-red, with medium-thick rind; deep-red, juicy, winey pulp; medium-hard seeds. Plant is vigorous and productive.
22. Yercaud 1:
Fruits are of medium size, rind easily peelable. Seeds are soft with attractive, deep purple aril.
11. Uses of Pomegranate:
i. Food Value:
Raw fruit is juicy and refreshing with a sub-acid flavour, they are considered delicious by many people though others do not like the large number of seeds with relatively little fruit pulp. The fruit juice can be used in soups, sauces, jellies, ice cream, cakes etc. The fruit contains about 1.5% protein, 1.6% fat, 16.8% carbohydrate, 0.6% ash.
Annual yields from wild trees in the Himalayas averaged 32 kg per tree (194). The fruit is about 12 cm in diameter. The fresh seed is soft and can be eaten raw. When dried it is used as a seasoning in dal, fried samosa, stuffings and chutneys. The boiled leaves are said to be eaten.
In some countries, such as Iran, the juice is a very popular beverage. Most simply, the juice sacs are removed from the fruit and put through a basket press. Otherwise, the fruits are quartered and crushed, or the whole fruits may be pressed and the juice strained out. In Iran, the cut-open fruits may be stomped by a person wearing special shoes in a clay tub and the juice runs through outlets into clay troughs.
Hydraulic extraction of juice should be at a pressure of less than 100 psi to avoid undue yield of tannin. The juice from crushed whole fruits contains excess tannin from the rind (as much as 175%) and this is precipitated out by a gelatin process. After filtering, the juice may be preserved by adding sodium benzoate or it may be pasteurized for 30 minutes, allowed to settle for 2 days, then strained and bottled. For beverage purposes, it is usually sweetened.
Housewives in South Carolina make pomegranate jelly by adding 7 ½ cups of sugar and 1 bottle of liquid pectin for every 4 cups of juice. In Saudi Arabia, the juice sacs may be frozen intact or the extracted juice may be concentrated and frozen, for future use. Pomegranate juice is widely made into grenadine for use in mixed drinks. In the Asiatic countries it may be made into thick syrup for use as a sauce. It is also often converted into wine.
The pomegranate has a long history of herbal use dating back more than 3,000 years. The juice of wild pomegranates yields citric acid and sodium citrate for pharmaceutical purposes. Pomegranate juice enters into preparations for treating dyspepsia and is considered beneficial in leprosy. All parts of the plant contain unusual alkaloids including isopelletierine, which paralyse tapeworms so that they are easily expelled from the body by using a laxative.
The plant is also rich in tannin, which makes it an effective astringent. It is used externally in the treatment of vaginal discharges, mouth sores and throat infections. The whole plant, but in particular the bark, is antibacterial, antiviral and astringent. This remedy should be used with caution, overdoses can be toxic.
The flowers are used in the treatment of dysentery, stomach ache and cough. Along with the leaves and seeds, they have been used to remove worms. The seeds are demulcent and stomachic. The fruit is a mild astringent and refrigerant in some fevers and especially in biliousness. It is also cardiac and stomachic.
The dried rind of the fruit is used in the treatment of amoebic dysentery, diarrhoea etc. It is a specific remedy for tapeworm infestation. The stem bark is emmenagogue. Both the stem and the root barks are used to expel tapeworms. Use this with caution, the root bark can cause serious poisoning. The bark is harvested in the autumn and dried for later use.
The dried pericarp is decocted with other herbs and used in the treatment of colic, dysentery, leucorrhoea etc. Either a decoction of the bark, which is very bitter, or the safer, insoluble Pelletierine Tannate may be employed. Overdoses are emetic and purgative, produce dilation of pupila, dimness of sight, muscular weakness and paralysis.
A tannin content of no more than 0.25% in the edible portion is the desideratum. Many studies have shown that tannin is carcinogenic and excessive ingestion of tannin from one or more sources, over a prolonged period, is detrimental to health.
All parts of the tree have been utilized as sources of tannin for curing leather. The trunk bark contains 10 to 25% tannin and was formerly important in the production of Morocco leather. The root bark has a 28% tannin content, the leaves, 11%, and the fruit rind as much as 26%. The latter is a by-product of the anardana industry.
Both the rind and the flowers yield dyes for textiles. Ink can be made by steeping the leaves in vinegar. In Japan, an insecticide is derived from the bark. The pale-yellow wood is very hard and, while available only in small dimensions, is used for walking-sticks and in woodcrafts.