Here is a list of twenty-five main anti-fertility foods.
1. Cumin Seeds (Cuminum Cyminum):
Animals treated with methanol extract of cumin seeds showed a marked reduction in sperm density in the cauda epididymis and testes, and sperm motility in the cauda epididymis. Reduction in fertility was 69.0 per cent and 76.0 per cent in 100 and 200 mg/rat/day dose levels, respectively.
The circulatory hormones were also reduced significantly. Testicular biochemical analysis of protein, sialic acid, glycogen, ascorbic acid and fructose indicated a marked decline, whereas testicular cholesterol content was significantly increased, which showed altered biochemistry of the reproductive organs.
Thus, Gupta et al. (2011) confirmed that C. cyminum treatment resulted in the inhibition of spermatogenesis and fertility without producing apparent toxic effects. Abortifacient effect seems to be due to the presence of coumingine.
2. Fenugreek Seeds (Trigonella Foenum Graecum):
Setty et al. (1976) reported that a 2 per cent concentration of the saponin fraction of fenugreek showed in vitro spermicidal action against rat and human semen. Literature also demonstrated that on feeding diets containing 30 per cent fenugreek seeds, a decrease in the testis weight, histopathological damage to the seminiferous tubules and interstitial tissues; and a decrease in the plasma concentration of the androgen hormone and sperm concentrations was observed in male rabbits and histopathologically evident proliferative changes of the endometrial glands and also a significant increase in the circulating plasma progesterone concentrations at 10 and 20 days of gestation in female rabbits.
Reduction of both fetal and placental weights at 20 days of gestation, and of the litter size indicated a significant reduction of developing fetuses in the female rabbits. Supplementation with fenugreek seed extract to female albino wistar rats reduced uterine weights along with the levels of FSH, LH, progesterone and estrogen. These results confirmed the traditional belief on the antiestrogenic activity of fenugreek seeds.
3. Lemon (Citrus Limonum):
Citrus-limonum is native of North West region of India. The petroleum ether, alcoholic and aqueous extracts of Citrus-limonum (lemon) seeds were investigated for anti-fertility effect in female albino mice. The alcoholic extract showed significant anti-fertility effect as compared to petroleum ether and aqueous extracts. The fraction of ethyl-acetate (12-25 fractions) showed most encouraging anti-fertility activity.
In the second part of the study, the alcoholic extract and its ethyl-acetate fraction (12-25 fractions) were observed to exhibit anti-zygotic action. Withdrawal of the test drug resulted in complete restoration of fertility. Thus the ethyl-acetate fraction (12-25 fractions) of alcoholic extract of lemon seeds exerted reversible anti-fertility effect in female mice by virtue of its anti-zygotic action.
Salawu et al. (2010) found a significant (P = 0.001) reduction in the number of ova shed in rats administered undiluted lime juice also in comparison with the control animals. Ovulation was partially blocked, as shown by the reduced number of ova observed in the oviducts from the rats given undiluted lime juice (5.10 ± 2.37) in comparison with the control rats (12.70 ± 1.14).
4. Drumstick (Moringa Oleifera):
Sethi et al. (1988) observed 100 per cent abortifacient activity with the plant extract of Moringa oleifera and none of the parameters of anti-fertility activity could be detected. The aqueous extract of M. oleifera when administered to pregnant rats, no deciduoma was observed on 5th day of pregnancy and the luminal epithelium remained unstimulated. The lumen was enlarged and the uterus was non-oedematous. It has been concluded that the administration of aqueous extract of M. oleifera to pregnant rats could not stimulate the uterus which remained non-receptive throughout the period of treatment, and therefore, the fertilized eggs may not be welcomed by the unprepared uterus.
Administration of the extract in ovariectomized rats stimulated the uterine histo-architecture as revealed by increases in the height of luminal epithelium, well developed glands, loose stroma and rich vascularity. The cervix showed metaplastic changes in the epithelium with marked keratinization. In the vagina, cornification was very prominent, rugae increased and stroma was loose.
Conjoint administration of the extract with estradiol showed a synergistic action, and an inhibition was observed when administered conjointly with progesterone. Shukla et al. (1988a) concluded from his investigation that the anti-fertility effect of the Moringa oleifera root extract appears to be due to multiple attributes. Biochemical observations supplemented with the histological findings have been correlated with the anti-implantation action of the aqueous extract in the light of its hormonal properties.
5. Pineapple (Ananas Comosus):
The pineapple juice is believed to be an anti-fertility fruit in Malaya. Pineapple exhibited 60 per cent anti-implantation activity at a concentration of 50 ml/kg in rats. The ethanol and petroleum ether extracts of the fruit also yielded similar results in the past. The fruit, fruit juice and leaf have been reported to be abortifacient and emmenagonic while the leaf and fruit has been reported to be uterotonic due to the presence of 5 hydroxy tryptamine.
Resorptive activity at 100mg/kg body wt. has been reported on consumption of pineapple fruit by Prakash et al (1978) but no anti-fertility effect at 100-200mg/kg body wt. was observed with the unripe fruit. Reports in the past suggest that pineapple has exhibited estrogenic activity. Singh et al (1985) implied that a compound; 5-stigmastene-3β, 7α-diol isolated from pineapple leaves induced anti- fertility effect in mice. The juice from unripe fruits demonstrated encouraging anti- implantation activity showing 40 per cent of implants only.
6. Pomegranate:
The pericarp of pomegranate at 3g and 9g per day for 4 weeks resulted in infertile matings in rats and guinea pigs respectively but no antifertility effect was observed in the fruit at a dose 200 mg/kg body wt. The fruit peel, however, demonstrated a high incidence of pseudo pregnancies. Besides the root and bark of pomegranate being abortifacient and emmenagogic, the fruit pulp also has been reported to be uterotonic.
7. Soya Beans (Glycine Max):
Cederroth et al. (2010a) reviewed the evidence regarding the potential detrimental effects of soy and phyto-oestrogens on male reproductive function and fertility in humans and animals. There are some indications that phyto-oestrogens, alone or in combination with other endocrine disrupters, may alter reproductive hormones, spermatogenesis, sperm capacitation and fertility and therefore feeding infants on soy-based formula, should be avoided.
Review of the studies on the influence of dietary soy and phytoestrogens on testicular and reproductive functions showed that long-term exposure to dietary soy and phytoestrogens may affect male reproductive function resulting in a small decrease in sperm count and fertility.
8. Grape Fruit (Citrus Sinensis/Citrus Paradise):
Fingerová et al. (2003) that grapefruit juice may increase bioavailability of orally administered estradiol and progesterone. The response varies markedly between individuals. This observation may be of some importance also for users of OC and HRT.
9. Garden Cress Seeds (Lepidium Sativum):
The garden cress seed oil has been reported to have variable proportion of benzyl isothiocyanate, benzyl cyanide, lignoceric and behenic acid, and possess estrogenic activity on immature rats, as 3-4 drops of the oil in the diet, demonstrated consistently better development, higher weights of ovaries and several hemorrhagic follicles in the ovaries.
Studies conducted in 1976 reported that the seeds did not exhibit any anti-fertility effect at a dose of 150 – 200mg/kg body wt. But the seeds have been reported to have abortifacient activity, spasmolytic activity, galactogogic and emmenagogic activity.
Later in 1984; between the β sitosterol and glucotropaeolin present in garden cress seeds, the β sitosterol has been reported to have anti-implantation activity at a dose of 100-150 mg/kg in rats. Probably due to this, garden cress seed oil was suggested as an effective postcoital contraceptive.
10. Mustard Seeds (Brassica Juncea):
Mustard seeds extracted in water is drunk with a belief that they have abortifacient properties and mustard is an anti-fertility plant.
Mustard hip baths were used in fever, uterine derangement, amenorrhea and dysmenorrhea. These effects of mustard could be due to the various compounds present in it like signirin, enzyme myrosin, sinapine sulphocyanide, lecithin, glucosinoles, allyl isothiocyanate.
11. Betel Leaves (Piper Betel Linn.):
It is believed among the rural population in South India that betel leaf consumption after delivery delays conception. The extract was found to reduce fertility to 0 per cent within 60 days. Suppression of cauda epididymal sperm count and motility (p <0.05) was observed. The contraceptive effect of the extract of leaf-stalk of Piper betle Linn, was found to be mainly on the maturation process of spermatozoa in epididymides without influencing hystemic hormonal profiles. Withdrawal of the extract restored all altered parameters including organ weights and fertility after 60 days.
12. Black/Long Pepper (Piper Longum, Piper Nigrum):
Piperine effectively inhibited implantation, produced abortion and delayed labor when it was given from day 2 through 5, day 8 through 12 and day 15 until labor, respectively. Piyachaturawat et al. (1982) from their observations suggested that the anti-fertility activity of piperine did not operate through any hormonal actions or uterotonic activity. Daware et al. (2000) showed that piperine interferes with several crucial reproductive events in a mammalian model.
13. Coriander Seeds (Coriandrum Sativum):
The aqueous extract of fresh coriander seeds produced a significant decrease in serum progesterone levels on day-5 of pregnancy which may be responsible for the anti-implantation effect observed by Al-Said et al. (1987).
14. Betel Nut:
The betel nut commonly consumed in rural and tribal areas, besides being abortifacient and emmenagogic has been reported to show uterotonic activity due to the presence of the active constituent arecoline or the tannin content. The petroleum ether, ethanol, water extracts of betel nut have showed anti-implantation activity at 500mg/kg in rats while the water extract of this plant was ineffective at 0.05 – 0.2 ml twice a day in mice.
15. Peas:
An interesting observation about Pisum sativum, ‘peas’ is that when contributing to 20 per cent of the diet, it decreased litter production and when contributing to 30 per cent of diet, it abolished litter production in rats only during the first 10 days of pregnancy. The active compound responsible for this action ‘Xylohydroquinone’ isolated from pea oil was experimentally found to reduce pregnancy rates in Indian women and earlier showed similar effects in the Tibetan population, where the staple diet consists of corn and peas.
16. Dates:
Dates have also been reported in literature to be used as aphrodisiacs. The date seed has been reported to demonstrate the presence of ergosterol and estrone. The non saponifiable fraction of fatty oil from dried date pollen showed the presence of estrogenic substances and has also exhibited gonadotrophic activity on immature rats.
17. Coconut:
In Java, nut milk is used for contraception purpose. Coconut has also been reported to have abortifacient effect while its dried kernel has been considered to be an aphrodisiac.
18. Cowpeas (Vigna Unguiculata):
Histological studies showed severe degenerative changes in the testis and the presence of multinucleated giant cells in the epididymis of the cowpea fed group that did not have fertile matings. It is proposed that cowpeas may contain some factors that could have antifertility effects, although the nature of such factors was not known.
19. Brahmi (Cintella Asiatica):
In Brahmi-treated males fertility was notably suppressed. The alterations caused in the above reproductive end points by the plant extract were reversible, and by 56 days of treatment withdrawal, the parameters recovered to control levels. Thus Singh and Singh (2009) found Brahmi treatment to cause reversible suppression of spermatogenesis and fertility, without producing apparent toxic effects.
20. Cotton Seed:
The anti-fertility effect of the cottonseed oil, gossypol, had been first observed in China, where it was administered orally to over 40,000 healthy males, with an effectiveness of 99 per cent (Tso and Lee, 1982). The authors of this study found gossypol to be a vaginal contraceptive with an added advantage of vaginal lubricating quality. They also found gossypol to cause total immobilization of spermatozoa in male seminal fluid.
Kalla and Vasudev (1980) observed that treatment with gossypol depletes production of adenosine triphosphate in the sperms and thus their metabolism does not proceed normally, rendering them immotile. It appears that the high vulnerability of the testis-to gossypol and the uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation in the respiratory chain of mitochondria of germ cells may be the mechanism responsible for infertility induction. In an attempt to mitigate the gastric side effects of gossypol, one group of clinicians adopted enteric-coated tablets for the clinical trial.
They found that both the anti-fertility effect and the systemic side effects of these tablets were much less than those of ordinary tablets. On the contrary, Zatuchni and Osborn (1981) reported that around 4000 Chinese men used gossypol contraceptive pill for at least 6 months, and some for more than 4 years. The efficacy rate of the pill was 99.89 per cent. Infertility was produced by cotton seed flour diets even with a low concentration of gossypol (defatted cottonseed flour); this effect was reversible at least after 6 weeks of gossypol-containing diets, even in the groups fed diets with a high gossypol concentration.
Male fertility returned by 3 months after discontinuation of the pill, and there were no apparent serious side effects on the babies borne by the wives of the men who had stopped using gossypol. Thus, gossypol was proved to be an effective anti-spermatogenic agent for certain susceptible animals and humans, and represents the only reasonable approach to reach the stage of large scale clinical testing. Porat (1990) who surveyed the research on gossypol is uncertain if infertility induced by gossypol is reversible or not.
Gossypol seems to disrupt estrous cycles, pregnancy, and early embryo development in females of all non-ruminant species studied. Probable mechanisms include an endocrine effect on the ovary as well as a cytotoxic effect on the uterus or embryo. The female ruminant seems to be relatively insensitive to the anti-fertility effect of gossypol; however, in vitro data indicate some inhibition of embryonic development and ovarian steroid genesis.
The anti-fertility effect of gossypol has been studied most in males of non-ruminant species. The effects of gossypol in the male are both dose- and time-dependent. At effective doses, gossypol causes males to be infertile because of sperm immobility and depressed sperm counts. Extensive damage to the germinal epithelium has been shown in both rams and bulls fed diets containing gossypol.
According to Porat (1990) the most common toxic side effect of cotton seed consumption is hypo-kalemia, which is severe enough to cause temporary paralysis in 1 per cent of 8806 volunteers in a study conducted in China. Whether potassium loss can be reversed by supplementation, or by taking potassium-sparing diuretics, has been questioned. Similarly, the extent and permanence of renal damage presumed responsible for potassium loss is uncertain.
Yet, the extensive investigations on formal animal toxicology and on the recovery of fertility in men after withdrawal of gossypol treatment led to the decision by the Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction at the World Health Organization, that gossypol would not be acceptable as an antifertility drug.
Roy Choudhury et al. (2009) confirmed the dose and time dependent alterations of rabbit spermatozoa motility parameters by gossypol and also indicated that a higher immobilizing potential of unfiltered gossypol in comparison to filtered one in rabbits.
21 Castor Bean (Ricinus Communis):
The protein contents of castor bean extract, separated by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, revealed the presence of several protein bands, ricin toxin being a major constituent of the extract. Both castor bean extract (CBE) and ricin A-chain (RAC) administered intraperitoneally on days 5-9 of pregnancy, exhibited a pronounced decrease in maternal body weight gain and in death of all fetuses.
A significant (p < 0.01) decrease of implantation sites resulted after rabbits were treated with RAC on the first 6 consecutive days of pregnancy indicating that CBE and RAC possess potent effects on implantation and ovulation in rabbits. The seed extract possesses an anti-fertility effect in female guinea pigs, which might be extrapolated in human beings. These findings might support the accredited claim of its traditional use to avoid unwanted pregnancies.
The ether extracts of castor bean seed possessed antifertility activity and contraceptive efficacy in female and male rodents and the in vitro study showed significant inhibitory activity in the primary cultured rat decidual stromal cells. Zhang et al. (2007) presumed that gamma-sitosterol may be the main component contributing to inhibit the viability of decidual stromal cells.
Nithya et al. (2012) also confirmed that 50 per cent ethanolic extract of the root of Ricinus communis possesses reversible anti-fertility effect. According to them, a 62-kDa protein (Rp) from this extract is responsible for the anti-fertility effects. They also showed that the protein Rp possesses spermicidal activity in vitro and its effects are similar to that of nonoxynol 9.
22. Bael (Aegle Marmelos):
The leaf extract of bael (bilvapatra) suppresses fertility in male rats. Complete recovery of fertility was observed following the withdrawal of drug. Absence of any deleterious effect on the vital organs points to the safe use of the extract.
23. Ajwain:
Omum seeds have also been shown to have emmenagogic activity. The active component responsible for this effect remains unidentified. It could include the omum oil containing petro selenic acid, thymol, carvacrol, α and β pinene, camphene, myrcene, D-3-carene, limonene, γ terpinene, r cymene, phenol glucoside- 2 -methyl 3 glucosyloxy 5 isopropyl phenol or any other yet undiscovered compound.
24. Tulasi (Ocimum Sanctum):
Tulasi leaves showed encouraging results when tested for anti-fertilizing, anti- zygotic, blasto-cystotoxic, anti-implantation, and early abortifacient activity.
25. Neem:
Numerous investigators have reported that neem leaves, bark, seeds and oils possess antifertility properties in male and female rats. Several reports cited in literature on the antifertility effect of Neem showed anti-implantation or abortifacient effect in rodents if administered early from day 2 to 7 postcoitum. Also praneem (purified Neem extract) given orally from day 8 to 10 postcoitum resulted in complete resorption of embryos.
A new vaginal contraceptive, NIM-76 was developed from neem oil having antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, K. pneumoniae and C. albicans. The contraceptive property of neem oil has been reported. The neem seed oil, leaf extracts and NIM-76 act as powerful spermicide and significantly inhibited spermatogenesis, decreased sperm motility, count and cessation of fertility. These conditions were reversed by the withdrawal of neem products 4-6 weeks later. Ogbuewu et al (2009) reported no significant reduction in libido of rabbit bucks fed graded levels of neem leaf meal based diets.
Neem seed oil possesses anti-implantation and abortifacient properties. Sinha et al (1984) found spermatozoa of human and Rhesus monkey were immotile and die within 30 min of contact with neem seed oil in an intra-vaginal dose of 1.0 mL. Vaginal biopsy revealed no side effect, while radio-isotope studies indicate non-absorption in the vagina and non-anti-ovulatory. These findings enabled neem oil formulation ‘sensal’ use in India as powerful contraceptive. Dallaqua et al. (2012) also reported that both neem seed oil and azadirachtin impaired intrauterine development of fetus and altered anti-oxidant/ oxidative status during pregnancy in rats.
The leaf extracts of neem showed 100 per cent immobilization and mortality of human spermatozoa at a 3 mg dose within 20 seconds. Treatment of mice with neem leaf extract (aqueous) caused adverse effects on sperm motility, acrosomal morphology and number of spermatozoa. Neem leaf extract has spermatotoxic effect.
Ogbuewu et al. (2009) and Mohan et al. (1997) reported significant reduction in semen volume, sperm count, higher incidence of morphological abnormalities of spermatozoa, fertilizing ability of rabbit bucks fed neem leaf meal based diets and hatchability of eggs on birds fed neem kernel cakes.
The active fraction was identified to be a mixture of six components, which comprises of saturated, mono and di-unsaturated free fatty acids and their methyl esters. The anti-fertility activity with the active fraction was reversible in nature. There was no systemic toxic effect following the administration of the active fraction. Garg et al. (1998) for the first time proposed that an active fraction from neem seeds, responsible for long term and reversible blocking of fertility after a single intrauterine administration with high efficacy.
The spermicidal activity of NIM-76 was confirmed using a fluorescent staining technique. NIM-76 was found to affect the motility of the sperm in a dose-dependent manner. Supplementation of pentoxifylline, which is known to enhance the motility of the sperm, could not prevent the spermicidal action of NIM-76 locking of fertility after a single intrauterine administration with high efficacy. The capability of NIM-76 to selectively kill sperm without affecting normal cells makes it a highly desirable potential vaginal contraceptive agent.
Juneja et al. (1996) confirmed that the postcoital intrauterine treatment of neem oil during pre-implantation period causes fertility block in mouse by lowering the epidermal growth factor receptor localization in the luminal and glandular epithelium, by causing massive leukocytes infiltration into the uteri, by degenerating the early embryos, and by causing the post-implantation embryonic resorptions in the uteri.
Kaushik and Upadhyay (1995) showed that the mode of antifertility action of intrauterine neem treatment (IUNT) is not because of uterine unresponsiveness to the ovarian hormones but is due to impairment of embryo development thus confirming their earlier observations. They also showed that the anti-fertility effect of IUNT is at the pre-implantation stage, localized and without any adverse or toxic effect on the fetal development in the contralateral uterine horn of the unilaterally treated rats.
Upadhyay et al. (1994) demonstrated further that an IUNT can be used for long-term, reversible contraception, without any apparent side effects, and that the method could provide an alternate to currently used intrauterine contraceptive devices (IUCD).
Neem oil, extracted from the seeds of Azadirachta indica has also been found by Bardhan et al. (1991) to act as a good spermicidal agent. Pre and post coital application of the oil intra vaginally prevented pregnancy in rhesus monkey. Neem oil at subcutaneous doses up to 0.3 ml/rat did not possess any estrogenic, anti-estrogenic or progestational activity and appeared not to interfere with the action of progesterone. Thus, Prakash et al (1988) expects that neem oil would elicit less side effects than the steroidal contraceptives, since the post-coital contraceptive effect of neem oil seems to be non-hormonal.
Khillare and Shrivastav (2003) studied the neem leaf also on the spermicidal activity and found the minimum effective spermicidal concentrations for tender and old neem leaf extracts were 2.91 +/- 0.669 mg/million sperm and 2.75 +/- 0.754 mg/ million sperm, respectively. With an increase in concentration, there is a linear decrease in percentage motility, becoming zero at a 3-mg dose within 20s.
Garg et al. (1994) identified a potent spermicide free from side effects by combination strategy. The positive synergistic effect in the spermicidal activity of the components – purified neem seeds extract (Praneem), reetha saponins and quinine hydrochloride indicates reduced concentrations of each to achieve effective spermicidal activity (0.39 per cent neem oil, 0.015 per cent reetha saponins, and 0.0012 per cent quinine hydrochloride).
Reetha saponin contains considerable oleanolic acid or hederagenin, which have a mild detergent effect, inactivating sperm. Quinine chloride strengthens spermicidal activity and antimicrobial activity. Neem extract induces local cell-mediated immunity. Contraceptive developers can formulate the combination of these 3 components either as a cream or pessary.
The treatment with aqueous leaf extract of neem had adverse effects on motility, morphology, and number of spermatozoa in the cauda epididymidis, level of fructose in the seminal vesicle, and on litter size. After 42 days of withdrawal of the treatment, the alterations induced in the reproductive organs recovered to control levels. The polar and non-polar fractions of A. indica and M. azedarach (mountain variety) seed extracts significantly reduced the number of normal follicles in rats, with maximum reduction occurring with 6 mg polar fraction of Azadirachta extract. This is consistent with its use in folk medicine as an anti-conceptional agent.
Administration of alcoholic extract of Neem flower disrupted the estrous cycle in Sprague-Dawley rats and caused a partial block in ovulation and thus has the potential of being developed into a female contraceptive. There are differences in the observations which could be attributed to the fact that there is variability in Neem with respect to azadirachtin content.
A polyherbal pessary formulated with purified ingredients from neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves, Sapindus mukerossi (pericarp of fruit) and Mentha citrata oil showed spermicidal action on human sperm in vitro and in vivo. When applied in the vagina before mating, it prevented rabbits from conceiving.