In this essay we will discuss about:- 1. Origin and Distribution of Sunflower 2. Area and Production of Sunflower 3. Climate and Soils 4. Sunflower Production Problems 5. Varieties and Seasons 6. Seeds and Seeding 7. Nutrient Management 8. Sunflower Based Cropping Systems 9. Water Management 10. Weed Management 11. Quality Considerations 12. Seed Production.
Contents:
- Origin and Distribution of Sunflower
- Area and Production of Sunflower
- Climate and Soils Suitable for Cultivating Sunflower
- Sunflower Production Problems
- Varieties and Seasons of Sunflower
- Seeds and Seeding of Sunflower
- Nutrient Management for Sunflower
- Sunflower Based Cropping Systems
- Water Management for Sunflower
- Weed Management for Sunflower
- Quality Considerations of Sunflower
- Seed Production of Sunflower
1. Origin and Distribution of Sunflower:
The genus name for sunflower is derived from the Greek Helios, meaning “sun” and anthos, meaning flower. Sunflower turn with the sun until anthesis after which the heads face east.
According to Heifer et al (1969), sunflower is a native of southern USA and Mexico from where it was taken to Spain before the middle of sixteenth century. In the nineteenth century, cultivation of sunflower as an oilseed crop began in USSR and the majority of present day varieties grown all over the world trace back their origin to the USSR. The major sunflower producing countries are USSR, Argentina, Bulgaria, Rumania, Turkey and South America.
Sunflower (Helianthus annus), which used to be an ornamental plant in India, has in recent times become an important source of edible oil. As a forage crop, sunflower is fed green or converted into silage in western countries. Globally, sunflower ranks second to soybean among annual field crops grown for edible oil. The quantity of sunflower oil represents about 15 per cent of the total world production of the major vegetable oils.
Sunflower seeds are one of the most nutritious and healthy foods. Sunflower is described as “drenched with sun-vitality” because the head follows the sun, ending up facing the west “to absorb the few last rays of the dying sun”.
Sunflower as an oilseed is a newly introduced crop in the country. This crop has gained importance due to its short duration of maturity, containing of excellent quality of oil, photo- insensitivity, wide adaptability into different kinds of cropping pattern, high-energy hull and drought tolerance.
It is a short duration crop and can be incorporated in different type of cropping pattern. Sunflower is grown as intercrop with crops such as groundnut, pigeonpea, castor, soybean etc. Since it is a photoinsensitive crop, it can be grown throughout the year. Oil cake is rich in high quality protein (40-44%) and used as cattle and poultry feed. This crop is considered valuable from economic as well as ornamental point of view.
2. Area and Production of Sunflower:
In 2008-09, world sunflower production was 33.3 M t, around 8.5 per cent of the total oilseeds production of world. European Union, Russia, Ukraine, Argentina, United States, China, India and Turkey are the major producers of sunflower in the world market.
Country wise, Russia ranks first in sunflower production followed by Ukraine. EU-27 is considered as the largest producer of sunflower in world when the production of all its member states is put together.
Top Producers of sunflower (M t) in 2008 are: Russia – 7.35, European Union – 7.13, Ukraine – 7.00, Argentina – 2.44, China 1.79, United States – 1.55, India – 1.00, Turkey 0.83.
Sunflower was introduced in India during 1965 as an edible oilseed crop. Although, commercial production of sunflower began in 1972, it has emerged as an important oilseed crop only in 1980. From a mere 500 ha in 1972-73, its area increased to 1.5 M ha and production touched 0.85 M t by 2009-10. The average productivity in India is around 607 kg ha-1 as against word average of 1230 kg ha-1. In India, sunflower production remained static around 1.2 M t from 1991-95 to 2005-06 and declined to 0.85 M t by 2010.
In India, sunflower is mainly grown in Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. As of now (2010), the crop assumed significance in Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. Karnataka ranks first both in the area (0.79 M ha) and production (0.30 M t) of sunflower followed by AP (area 0.35 M ha and production 0.27 M t).
Among the major sunflower cultivating states, yield is highest (1762 kg ha-1) in Punjab followed by UP (1667 kg ha-1). Globally, Switzerland has the highest sunflower productivity (2900 kg ha-1).
3. Climate and Soils Suitable for Cultivating Sunflower:
Sunflower is basically a crop of temperate regions but highly adaptable to both cold and high temperature conditions.
Climate:
Sunflower crop requires a cool climate during germination and seedling growth, warm weather up to flowering and non-cloudy days from flowering to maturity. Sunflower seed can germinate at 40°C but optimum temperature is 8° to 10°C. Emergence is faster at 15°C. Optimum ambient temperature regime is 20° to 25°C but can tolerate up to 30°C. Ideal temperature for fruit set is 21° to 24°C. Night temperatures of 18° to 20°C and day temperatures of 24° to 26°C are optimum for more number of seeds and oil content.
Sunflower crop is classified as photoperiod insensitive as it can flower at wide range of day lengths. In any case, day length of 12 to 14 hrs is desirable but interaction with ambient temperature reduces the time for maturity. In general, sunflower prefers bright sunshine and excessive shade drastically reduces the yield.
Sunflower crop can be grown from sea level up to an elevation of 2,500 m but better results are obtained at elevations less than 1500 m. Excellent crop of sunflower can be obtained with well distributed rainfall of 500 to 750 mm. Rainfall more than 750 mm, particularly on black soil with poor drainage drastically affect the seed yield.
Sunflower attains maximum LAI of 1.2-1.5 at anthesis. Its dry matter production is up to 4.0 t ha-1. The NAR range from 10 to 18 g m-2 and under ideal conditions it can be around 28 g m-2 day-1. Most varieties are insensitive to photoperiod and flower in wide range of day lengths. It can tolerate short periods of drought without much reduction in yield. The HI ranges from 0.33 to 0.35.
Bees play prominent role in increasing seed set in sunflower, more particularly in open pollinated populations. Wherever the bee activity is low, it is essential to go for supplemental hand pollination on alternate days between 8 and 11 AM for about two weeks. For this purpose, cover the hands with muslin cloth and gently rub the heads with fingers and also touch the heads of neighboring plants.
Soils:
Sunflower can be grown on a variety of soils ranging from sandy loams to heavy clay soils. Deep soils with good internal drainage are ideal for rainfed crop. Sunflower crop does not stand even short periods of waterlogging. It grows well on soils with neutral to moderately alkaline reaction. Yield and quality are affected on soils with 10-12 ds m-1.
Sunflower requires well prepared seedbed for optimum seed germination, stand establishment and growth. In the case of light soils, two ploughing followed by harrowing and planking is optimum. Medium and heavy soils are prepared by harrowing twice or thrice when the soil moisture is optimum for tillage operations.
4. Sunflower Production Problems:
Traditional areas (Karnataka, AP, TN and Maharashtra):
1. Prolonged droughts during kharif crop growing season.
2. Poor soil moisture conservation practices.
3. Problems in crop stand establishment on Alfisols.
4. Negligence in timely thinning and maintenance of only one plant at a place.
5. Inadequate and often imbalanced fertiliser application.
6. Poor seed setting due to continuous rains and cloudy weather around October.
7. Inadequate plant protection measures.
Non-traditional areas (Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Orissa and WB):
1. Late sowings after the harvest of potato, mustard, cotton or rice.
2. Non-availability of required short duration hybrids to fit in the system.
3. Timely availability of quality seed.
4. Stem rot, head rot and bird damage.
5. Varieties and Seasons of Sunflower:
Varieties:
In the early 1970s, three Russian varieties EC 68414, EC 68415 and EC 69874 were introduced for testing in India. The Canadian variety Sunrise was also tested along with Russian varieties. Of these EC 68414 and EC 68415 became popular. Later on, early maturing variety Modern was released to suit the needs under different fanning situations. Recommended cultivars for different states are given in Table 12.1.
Seasons:
Sunflower can be grown although the year, provided soil moisture/irrigation is not a limiting factor. Sowing time should be decided in such a way that flowering and seed development stages do not coincide with continuous rains or temperature above 38°C.
Recommended sowing time for different states is given below:
6. Seeds and Seeding of Sunflower:
Seed Rate and Method of Seeding:
For quick germination and optimum stand establishment, especially under rainfed conditions, the seed should be soaked in fresh water for about 14 hrs followed by shade drying. The seed should be treated with Thirum or Captan at 2-3 g kg-1 to protect from seed born diseases.
Line sowing, using seed drills, is the best method of sowing. The seed is often sown in furrows behind country plough. Hand dibbling in plough furrows is also common. Optimum sowing depth is 5 cm. Due to inadequate soil moisture or poor quality seed, the stand establishment may be a problem. As such, higher seed rate is often recommended to compensate for such problems.
Recommended seed rates are given below:
Spacing and Plant Population:
In sunflower growing countries, row spacing ranges from 45-100 cm and plant population from 60,000 to 2,50,000 plants ha-1.
In India, optimum row spacing vary from 45 to 60 cm depending on soil type as indicated below:
Wider row spacing of 60 cm is preferred for hybrids and long duration varieties. For short duration and dwarf varieties, a row spacing of 45 cm is adequate.
Sunflower crop is highly susceptible to competition from more than one plant per hill. Maintenance of optimum plant population by judicious thinning around 10-15 days after emergence to maintain single plant per hell is essential for obtaining higher yield. While thinning, care must be taken to minimise disturbance to the plant left in the field, especially under rainfed conditions.
7. Nutrient Management for Sunflower:
Sunflower crop yielding 2.0 t seed, 3.2 t stover, 0.8 t ha-1 roots remove 82 N, 30 P2O5, 72 K2O, 9.4 S and 37 Ca kg ha-1 from soil. Sunflower crop is supposed to deprive the soil fertility besides producing allelochemicals.
NPK Requirement:
Sunflower crop responds to applied nutrients effectively when FYM is added at 10 t ha-1 especially under rainfed condition due to increase in soil moisture retentivity.
Based on the fertiliser trials conducted under different agroecological conditions DOR 2006, the following general fertiliser schedule (kg ha-1) can be recommended:
Time and Method of Application:
Based on soil test values, fertiliser recommendations can be adjusted for minimising cost of production. Nitrogen should be applied in split doses. Fifty per cent of the recommended nitrogen and entire dose of phosphorus and potassium should be applied at sowing, preferably, by drilling.
If the seeding is in plough furrows, a tube may be attached for proper fertiliser placement. Single superphospate is the best source of phosphorus supply. In the case of rainfed crop, top dress the remaining nitrogen around 30 DAS depending on rainfall, preferably, at the time of intercultivation. For irrigated sunflower, 25 per cent of the remaining nitrogen should be applied in two equal splits at 30 DAS (button stage) and 55 DAS (flowering stage).
Other Nutrients:
Sulphur is essential for increasing yield and oil content of seed. In sulphur deficient soils, addition of 25 kg S ha-1 can significantly increase the yield. The average response is around 13 kg seed kg-1 S. Among the micronutrients, iron, manganese and molybdenum improve the yield if the soils are deficient in these nutrients.
Most significant response can be obtained to boron application. Directed spray of borax (0.2%) to capitulum at ray floret opening improves seed filling and oil content. In zinc deficient soils, 1.0 per cent Zn SO4 spray is beneficial.
8. Sunflower Based Cropping Systems:
Development of early and medium duration, sunflower cultivates and there less thermo and photo sensitivity render sunflower an ideal crop for all seasons. Sunflower can be grown either as a sole crop are as an intercrop. It can be grown as sequence crop after the harvest of rainy season pulse or cereal crop. Remunerative and feasible cropping system in northwest India is to grow sunflower after potato, toria, cotton and rice as spring/zaid crop.
Intercropping:
Sunflower is an ideal intercrop with cereals, pulses and oilseed crops.
The following intercropping systems have been proved remunerative under different situations:
Sunflower + groundnut (2: 4 or 2: 6)
Sunflower + fingermillet (3:6)
Sunflower + pigeonpea (1:1)
Sunflower + soybean (3:3)
Sunflower + greengram or blackgram (1:1)
Sunflower + cowpea (1:4)
Sequence Cropping:
Sequence cropping under rainfed conditions is possible when rabi crop can be grown on soil moisture. Under irrigated conditions, sunflower can be grown after kharif and rabi crops.
The following sequence cropping systems are found ideal in several situations:
Rainfed:
Sunflower – groundnut (two years sequence).
Sunflower – mustard (two years sequence).
Sunflower – maize (two years sequence).
Sunflower – bengalgram (one year sequence).
Sunflower – wheat (one year sequence).
Sunflower – mustard (one year sequence).
Sunflower – sorghum (one year sequence).
Irrigated:
Rice – sunflower
Cotton – sunflower
Mustard – sunflower
Rice – rice – sunflower
Rice – groundnut – sunflower
Rice – sunflower – pulses
Rice – fingermillet – sunflower
Maize – potato – sunflower
9. Water Management for Sunflower:
Sunflower crop has deep root system, extending beyond 2 m depth especially on deep soils. It has the ability to withstand short periods of severe soil water deficit up to 14 atm tension. Long periods of severe water deficit at any growth period cause leaf drying leading to low yield. With heavy rainfall or irrigation following extremely dry periods, only a partial recovery occurs.
Critical Stages for Irrigation:
The percentage of total crop water u1se over different growth stages is about 20 per cent during vegetative period, 55 per cent during flowering period and the remaining 25 per cent during development.
Critical stages for soil moisture stress (days after seeding) are intended below:
Flower opening period is the most sensitive to water deficits. Seed filling is the next important stage for soil water deficits.
Scheduling Irrigation:
Sunflower responds to irrigation during rabi and summer seasons depending upon soil type and weather conditions. At Kota, rabi sunflower responded to two irrigations and to three irrigation at Kanpur. Irrigation at 50 per cent DASM was optimum at Tirupati (AP) and at 60 per cent DASM at Coimbatore (TN).
Depending on soil type, scheduling irrigation at IW/CPE ratios ranging from 0.5 to 1.0 are ideal during rabi. From the results it is evident that sunflower needs irrigations at intervals of 15-20 days in the case of black soils and 8- 10 days in the case of light soils as per the schedule indicated in Table 12.2.
Excessive and too frequent irrigations predispose the crop to wilt and root rots. If irrigations water is limited, irrigations be restricted to the moisture sensitive stages for efficient use of scarce irrigation water.
Water Requirement:
The water requirement of sunflower ranges from 500 to 600 mm, depending on climate and length of crop growing period. Highest ET around 9.0 mm day-1 is expected during anthesis. On an average, the water use efficiency ranges between 50 and 60 kg seed ha-1 cm-1. Under good management, it may be as high as 150 kg seed ha-1 cm-1.
Depending on soil type, optimum depth of irrigation varies from 5 to 7 cm. The crop is most suited to surface irrigation, particularly furrow irrigation allowing infrequent and heavy applications.
10. Weed Management for Sunflower:
Competition from weeds is more severe during early stage of crop growth. The critical period of crop- weed competition is 4 to 6 weeks after seeding.
Cultural Management:
Sunflower is sown in rows wide enough to permit intercultivation using different blade harrows. Two intercultivations at 15 days internal commencing from 15 DAS and one hand weeding between the two intercultivations can effectively check the weed growth in sunflower.
Use of Herbicides:
PRE application of Alachlor (1.0-2.0), Pendimethalin (1.0-1.5), Thiobencarb (1.0-1.5) or Oxadiazon (1.0-1.5) is effective for weed control in sunflower. PPI of Trifluralin (1.0-2.0) or Fluchloralin (0.5-1.0) is also equally effective.
Package of Production Practices:
Salient production practices for sunflower are summarised.
Tillage:
1. Deep ploughing during summer period aids in perennial weed management and moisture conservation for rainfed crop.
2. In the case of light soils, two ploughings followed by harrowing and planking wild be adequate for optimum seed germination and seedling establishment.
3. Three to four harrowings and final planking would be adequate for a crop on heavy soils.
Varieties/hybrids for AP:
1. Hybrids:
LSFH-35 (Maruti), KBSH 44, MLSFH 82 (AH-11-21, Pro Sun 09, MLSFH 47, NDSH 1, SH 416, DRSH 1 Sungene 85, PAC 1091, PAC 36, Jwalamukhi, MSFH 17, KBSH 1, MSFH 8, APSH 11.
2. Varieties:
Modern. TNAUSUF 7, DRSF 108.
Seeds and Seeding Practices:
1. Optimum sowing times are mid-June to mid-July for rainfed kharif crop, early-September to early-October for a post-rainy season rainfed crop, November- December for irrigated rabi crop, January- February for summer irrigated crop and late-January to early-February for spring (zaid) crop.
2. Under rainfed situation, recommended seed rates per ha are 8-10 kg for varieties and 5-6 kg for hybrids. Corresponding seed rates under irrigation are 5-6 and 4-5 kg, respectively.
3. Row seeding is recommended with a seeding depth of 5-6 cm.
4. Row spacing is 45 x 20 cm for light soils, 45 x 30 cm for medium soils and 60 x 30 cm for heavy soils.
5. Thinning within 15 days to maintain only one plant at a place is a must.
Fertiliser Schedule:
1. Irrigated hybrids and long duration varieties: 60 N, 90 P2 O5 and 60 K2 O along with FYM at 10 t ha-1.
2. Rainfed hybrids and long duration varieties: 40 N, 50 P2 O5 and 40 K2 O along with FYM at 10 t ha-1.
3. Rainfed short duration varieties: 30 N, 40 P2 O5 and 30 K2 O along with FYM at 10 t ha-1.
4. FYM to be applied during land preparation, entire P and K along with half of N at sowing by drilling/placement both for rainfed and irrigated crops.
5. The remaining half of N should be applied at a time 30 DAS, depending on soil moisture, for rainfed crop and in two equal splits 30 and 55 DAS for an irrigated crop by placement.
6. Single superphosphate is the best source of P. Zinc sulphate at 25 kg ha-1 is recommended for a crop in intensive cropping systems.
Water Management:
1. Bud initiation (35 DAS), flower opening (55 DAS) and seed filling (around 75 DAS) are critical stages for soil moisture deficit.
2. In general, irrigation once in 15-20 days for heavy soils and 8-10 days for light soils would be adequate.
3. If water is a limiting factor, irrigations should be restricted to cortical stages for soil moisture.
Weed Management:
1. Critical stage for weed competition is 4-6 weeks after sowing.
2. Two intercultivations around 15 and 30 DAS would be adequate under different situations.
3. PRE Alachlor, Pendimethalin, Thiobencarb and Oxadiazon are equally effective to check the weed growth.
4. Integrated weed management involving land preparation, intercultivation and herbicides appears to be economical for an irrigated crop.
11. Quality Considerations of Sunflower:
Seed Composition:
Oil content of sunflower kennel ranges from 48 to 53 per cent while that of whole seed from 28 to 35 per cent. The protein content of seed varies from 14 to 19 per cent, crude fiber 16 to 27 per cent and ash 2 to 3 per cent.
Composition of sunflower seed is given below:
Sunflower oil is considered premium oil because of its light color, flavour, high smoke point and good nutritional quality. Sunflower oil is unsaturated oil with high levels of linoleic acid. The saturated fatty acids, palmitic and stearic acid constitute only 15 per cent. The main constituent linoleic acid ranges from 40 to 70 per cent.
Sunflower oil being free of toxic constituents is excellent edible oil. It has greater oxidative stability and is more useful as frying oil. It also serves as an industrial feedstock utilised in the preparation of cosmetics and pharmaceuticals.
Sunflower Meal:
Sunflower meal is obtained as a byproduct of oil extraction industry. In general, the meal is richer in protein (30-42%) and carbohydrates (22-32%). Defatted meal is mostly used in feedstuffs. Non-dehulled or partly dehulled meal is useful in feeding ruminant animals while partly or completely dehulled meal is useful in feeding swine or poultry.
Amino Acid Composition:
Sunflower protein contains higher proportion of essential amino acids. Lysine is the major limiting amino acid followed by leucine. Sunflower protein contains higher methionine (11.4 g 1000 g-1). The protein is highly digestible (90%) and has high biological value (60%). The net protein utilisation value (58%) is higher than that for groundnut and similar to soybean.
Antinutritional Factors:
Sunflower mainly contains phenolic compounds and phytates as antinutritional components. Phenolic compounds interact with protein to form complexes with decrease solubility and inhibitory effect on digestive enzymes. Phytic acid binds mineral elements like Ca, Mg, Fe and Zn making them unavailable.
12. Seed Production of Sunflower:
Production of quality breeder, foundation and certified seed of hybrids and their parental line calls for careful planning and management on the part of seed producer. Well drained neutral soils with good internal drainage are ideal for seed production. The selected field should not have been under sunflower crop in the proceeding 2 to 3 seasons.
Isolation Requirements:
Sunflower is a highly cross pollinated crop. Hence, maintenance of prescribed isolation from other sunflower cultivates is a must for avoiding any possible contamination.
The isolation distance suggested for breeder, foundation and certified seed production under seed certifications is 600 m. An isolation distance of 1.5 km for breeder and foundation seed and 1.2 km for certified seed has been suggested by DOR, Hyderabad (AP) as most appropriate for quality seed production.
Time of Sowing, Spacing and Seed Rate:
The best time for quality seed production is rabi and summer in conventional sunflower belt and zaid and spring in northern parts of the country.
Recommended management practices are indicated below:
For both A line and hybrid seed production plots, there should be one row of male to ensure adequate supply of pollen to female lines. Plant the first and last two rows of seed production plots with male lines. Alternately, planting female and male lines in separate blocks in 3:1 proportion in the same seed production plots will help in avoiding mixtures in hybrid seed.
Optimum Stand Establishment:
Seed should be treated with Thiram or Captan at 2.5 g kg-1 wherever downy mildew is endemic.
Seed is dibbled at the stipulated intra and inter row spacing. It is desirable to plant 2-3 seeds per hill and thin out excess seedlings to maintain one healthy plant per hill positively within 15 DAS. Seed should be sown around 5 cm deep in the soil.
Weeding, Rouging and Hand Pollination:
Seed production plots should be kept weed free up to 45 DAS. Two intercultivations with blade harrows at 15 days interval commencing from 20 DAS with a hand weeding in between can keep the field weed free. If necessary, Alachlor (1.5-2.0) or Prometryn (1.5-2.0) may be applied as PRE spray after sowing the seed.
All off types which do not confirm to the specific population/parental line should be removed before flowering. Pollen shedders are male fertile plants in the A line which are easily identifiable and sterile plants in the B line should be removed. The plots should be rouged 2-3 times, preferably before anthesis.
For obtaining optimum seed set hand pollination is a must. During the flowering period (2 weeks) pollinate the female heads with pollen from B in the case of A lines production and R lines in the case of hybrid seed production plots on every day between 8 and 11 AM. The male line in both A line and hybrid seed production plots should be removed as soon as pollination is over.
Water Management:
The timing and number of irrigations depends on season and type of the soil. In general, irrigations may be given once in a week for the crop on light soils and once in 20 days on heavy soils. Care should be taken to see that the crop does not suffer from soil moisture stress at bud stage (30-40 DAS), flowering (50-65 DAS) and seed filling (65-95 DAS).
Timely plant protection is a must for high quality seed and high seed yield. The crop should be harvested when the back of the captuilum turns lemon yellow in color. Normally, fresh sunflower seed have a dormancy period of 45-50 days. If necessary, the seed can be used for sowing immediately by treating it with Ethrel solution (25 ppm) equivalent to 40 per cent by volume of seed. Seeds may be soaked for about 6 hrs before sowing.