In this essay we will discuss about:- 1. Origin and Distribution of Safflower 2. Area and Production of Safflower 3. Safflower Production Problems 4. Climate and Soils 5. Varieties and Seasons 6. Seeds and Seeding 7. Nutrient Management 8. Cropping Systems 9. Water Management 10. Weed Management 11. Harvesting and Threshing 12. Quality Considerations.
Contents:
- Origin and Distribution of Safflower
- Area and Production of Safflower
- Safflower Production Problems
- Climate and Soils Suitable for Cultivating Safflower
- Varieties and Seasons of Safflower
- Seeds and Seeding of Safflower
- Nutrient Management for Safflower
- Cropping Systems of Safflower
- Water Management for Safflower
- Weed Management for Safflower
- Harvesting and Threshing of Safflower
- Quality Considerations of Safflower
1. Origin and Distribution of Safflower:
The three centers of origin as suggested by Vavilov for Carthamus tinctorius are India, Afghanistan and Ethiopia. De Candolle was of the opinion that Arabia was the most probable center of origin.
Major countries producing safflower are India, Mexico, Ethiopia, USA, Argentina, Australia and former USSR. In India, it is largely confined to Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), commonly known as kusum (Hindi) and kusuma (Telugu) is an important rabi oilseed crop in India. For centuries, it has been under cultivation in India either for its orange red dye (carthamin) extracted from brilliantly coloured florets and/or for its much valued oil. India occupies premier position in the word in terms of both area and production of safflower.
2. Area and Production of Safflower:
Globally, safflower is cultivated over an area of 0.74 M ha (2003) with an annual production around 0.65 M t and productivity about 872 kg ha-1. Among the major safflower cultivating countries, the productivity is highest (1200 kg ha-1) in Mexico as against 627 kg ha-1 in India.
India ranks first both in area (0.29 M ha) and production (0.10 M t) of safflower in the world (2009-10). However, both the area and production are gradually declining year after year. Still, India ranks first both in area and production of safflower in the word accounting for about 54 per cent of the area and 40 per cent of total production.
Maharashtra ranks first both in area and production of safflower. Maharashtra and Karnataka accounts for 70 and 25 per cent of area and 67 and 33 per cent of production, respectively in the country.
3. Safflower Production Problems:
Traditional areas (Karnataka, AP, TN and Maharashtra):
1. Timely availability of quality improved seed.
2. Poor soil moisture conservation practices.
3. Negligence in timely thinning and maintenance of only one plant at a place.
4. Inadequate and often imbalanced fertiliser application.
5. Waterlogging during Sept/Oct.
6. Late sowing after kharif crop.
7. Inadequate plant protection measures.
Madhya Pradesh:
1. Timely availability of quality seed.
2. Late sowing after harvest of kharif crop.
3. Inadequate/imbalanced fertiliser use.
4. Absence of timely thinning.
5. Poor soil moisture conservation practices.
6. Lack of marketing facilities.
4. Climate and Soils Suitable for Cultivating Safflower:
Climate:
Safflower is adapted to wide range of climatic conditions. In India, it is mostly cultivated between 14° and 22°N and 74° and 79°E during rabi. It is more or less day neutral but thermosensitive. Its large scale production is limited to low altitude (900-1000 m) semiarid and arid areas.
The crop is tolerant to low temperatures at seedling and vegetative stages but sensitive at elongation, flowering and post-flowering stages. Minimum soil temperature for germination is 15°C and early germination occurs at higher temperature. Optimum soil temperature for growth and development is 16°C. Safflower is capable of withstanding high atmospheric temperature up to 49°C.
Safflower comes up better in relatively drier areas. It is drought resistant and comes up well in areas receiving 300 to 600 mm rainfall. It cannot withstand excessive soil moisture or humidity at any stage due to damage from fungal diseases. A unique feature of safflower is that a presowing irrigation in moisture retentive deep soils can support the crop with minimal precipitation.
Soils:
Safflower requires a fertile, fairly deep and well drained soil for optimum yield. For an irrigated crop, medium textured soil is preferable. Although, its commercial cultivation at present is mostly restricted to medium and deep black soils in Peninsular India, the crop comes up equally well on a variety soils (sandy loams, clay loams and alluvial). Shallow and light textured soils seldom produce economic yields unless irrigated.
High yields can be obtained under neutral soil reaction but can tolerate a wide range of pH from 5 to 8. Seedling stage is highly sensitive to salinity and waterlogging. Poor drainage or prolonged rains even for short periods (1-2 days) predispose the crop to damage from rots and wilts leading to substantial yield loss. Heavy soils with poor drainage must be avoided for its cultivation, especially under irrigation. Information on growth and development of the crop is limited.
Tillage:
In monocropped black soil of kharif areas (kharif fallows), harrowing 3-4 times during monsoon is as effective as deep ploughing to keep the fields weed free. Steps should be taken for conserving soil moisture.
When safflower crop has to be grown after a kharif short duration cereal or legume during postrainy season, deep ploughing or repeated tillage should be avoided to minimise soil moisture loss. One or two harrowings followed by planking immediately after the harvest of kharif crops is adequate for a reasonably ideal seedbed.
5. Varieties and Seasons of Safflower:
Varieties:
Many improved cultivars have been developed to suit different agroecological conditions in different states. Promising improved cultivars are given in Table 13.1.
Seasons:
Safflower is a rabi oilssed crop both under rainfed and irrigated conditions. Rainfed crop is grown on stored soil moisture during postraining season. Optimum time of sowing for different safflower growing areas in September/October are given in Table 13.2.
6. Seeds and Seeding of Safflower:
Seeds should be treated with Thiram, Captan or Bavistin at 3 g kg-1 before sowing. In eastern Madhya Pradesh, the seed is presoaked in pure water for 24-48 hrs and shade dried for about 4 hrs. Thereafter, it is treated with fungicide before sowing.
Seed Rate and Spacing:
Recommended seed rates and spacings for different regions to achieve desired plant stand are indicated in Table 13.3.
Method of Seeding and Seeding Depth:
Adequate stand establishment can be obtained by using improved seed drills or ferti-seed drills. Seeds can also be sown in plough furrows behind country plough. Optimum depth of seeding is 5 cm. The seed should be covered with a heavy plank immediately after seeding.
7. Nutrient Management for Safflower:
An average crop of safflower removes 60-65 N, 27-30 P2O5 and 40-45 K2O kg ha-1. One tonne of seed removes about 45 kg N. Under irrigation, significant responses have been obtained up to 120 kg N ha-1 with a response ranging from 4-5 kg seed kg-1 N applied.
NPK Requirement:
Rainfed safflower rarely receives any fertiliser, except FYM at 5-6 t ha-1. However, results of experiments suggest the need for 20 to 40 kgN ha-1 depending on amount and distribution of rainfall. Irrigated crop responds up to 60 kg N ha-1.
Phosphorus requirements vary from 30 to 40 kg P2O5 ha-1 depending on soil phosphorus content and available soil moisture. Average response is 7 to 8 kg seed kg-1 of phosphorus applied. Response to potassium is not common under several situations. Based on the results of experiments in safflower graving areas, the Directorate of Oilseeds Research has recommended different fertiliser schedules for different safflower growing areas (Table 13.4).
In double cropped areas, recommended nitrogen can be reduced by 50 per cent if the proceeding crop is a legume with full complement of fertiliser. In scanty rainfall areas of Maharashtra, an additional top dressing of 25 kg N ha-1 may be given, if crop growing season is favourable with post-planting rains.
Time and Method of Application:
Under rainfed conditions, entire quantity of fertiliser should be applied by drilling at sowing. Fertiliser should be placed around 10 cm soil depth. In traditional single cropped rabi tracts of Maharashtra and Karnataka, application of fertiliser 2 to 3 weeks prior to optimum planting time is recommended for maximum efficiency under receding soil moisture.
Split application of nitrogen is ideal for irrigated safflower. Half of the recommended nitrogen along with entire quantity of phosphorus and potassium should be applied at sowing. Remaining 50 per cent of nitrogen has to be top dressed after five weeks, preferably at the time of first irrigation.
8. Cropping Systems of Safflower:
Intercropping:
Although, sole crop of safflower is more profitable under conditions of adequate available soil moisture, it is grown as intercrop with several traditional crops to overcome the risk of total crop failure under adverse conditions.
Major intercropping systems are indicated below:
Sequence Cropping:
A number of productive and remunerative identified for different agroecological situations.
9. Water Management for Safflower:
The reputation of safflower as a drought resistant crop is mainly based on its ability to withdraw water from a depth around 3.5 m. As such, it is largely grown as rainfed post-monsoon crop, especially on heavy soils.
Critical Stages for Irrigation:
Water deficits during early vegetative period (rosette development), elongation and branching (30-60 DAS), flowering and seed filling results in poor yield. Water deficits during vegetative growth prolong the total growing period. Flowering and seed filling stages are most critical for soil moisture stress.
Scheduling Irrigation:
Irrigation scheduling should aim at minimising excess soil water, particularly in relation to sensitivity of crop to root rot. A deep presowing irrigation is, therefore, very effective followed by infrequent but heavy applications of water.
In deep soils with high water holding capacity, usually two irrigations, one before seeding and one during flowering are adequate. In soils of lighter texture, three or more applications may be necessary.
Water Requirement:
Total water requirement vary between 600 and 1200 mm depending on soil, climate and crop duration. Peak water use (8 to 12 mm day-1) occurs at flowering. Water use efficiency varies between 5 and 6 kg ha-1 mm-1 when applied water is 440 to 600 mm.
It is advisable to sow the safflower on broad beds with furrows at intervals of 1.5 to 2.0 mm or preferably on flat bed and then form irrigation furrows after every 2 or 3 rows at the time of first irrigation. Such a system would help to minimise contact of water with above ground part of the plant and minimise root and stem rot.
10. Weed Management for Safflower:
Safflower cannot complete with weeds up to 60 DAS. Since safflower is largely cultivated as an intercrop, the component crop acts as cover crop to suppress the weed growth.
Cultural Management:
Since, safflower is planted in wide rows (45 to 60 cm) intercultivation implements (harrows) can be used for weed control. Two harrowings at 25-30 and 45-50 DAS, depending on the length of rosette period and one manual weeding in between can effectively check the weed growth.
Use of Herbicides:
Use of herbicides is not common in safflower cultivation.
If necessary, any one of the following herbicides can effectively check the weed growth in safflower crop:
11. Harvesting and Threshing of Safflower:
Harvesting:
Safflower cop mature in 4 to 5 months. The crop can be harvested when the leaves and most of bracteoles except a few on last formed flower heads become dry and brown. The crop should be harvested, preferably, in the early hours when the shattering would be minimum and spines relatively soft.
The plant is cut with sickles at the base or wherever possible uprooted by pulling and stacked in the field in the form of small and well pressed heaps until they are fully dried. If necessary, gloves made from gunny bag can be used to protect legs and hands against spines.
Threshing:
Well dried plants are threshed either by beating with sticks or with the help of bullock drawn stoneroller or tractor and the resulting material is winnowed to clear the seeds. Threshing and cleaning can also be made with power operated threshers used for other crops such as wheat. Combine harvesters used in wheat could also be used for harvesting and threshing of safflower crop.
If recommended production technology is followed about 1000 kg ha-1 of safflower yield can be obtained under scanty moisture situations and about 1500 kg ha-1 under favorable soil moisture conditions. With minimal irrigation, yields up to 2500 kg ha-1 could be achieved.
12. Quality Considerations of Safflower:
Seed Composition:
Traditional safflower seeds contain about 50 per cent each of hull and kernel with an oil content of 28-32 percent. Thin hulled types contain 55-70 per cent kernel with an oil content of 35-45 per cent. Completely dehulled kernel contains 60 per cent oil. Protein content of seed ranges from 11 to 24 per cent. Thin hulled types contain more protein than thick hulled types.
Oil Quality and Fatty Acid Composition:
Safflower oil is a drying oil with high levels of linoleic acid, which is known to reduce the cholesterol content. The oil is pale yellow in colour with a specific gravity of 0.92, refractive index 1.5 and saponification value of 186 to 194.
The fatty acid profile of safflower oil includes linoleic (70-80%) oleic (6-8%), stearic (2-3%) and palmitic (5-8%). Due to 90 per cent polyunsaturated fatty acids in safflower oil, it is considered one of the best edible oils.
Utilisation:
Since early times, medical value of safflower was recognised as it remedies rheumatism. Petals and other floral parts are used for colouring food products and garments. Safflower meal is rich in protein and used as feed.
Yield of florets ranges from 70 to 100 kg ha-1. The florets contain two colouring materials, a water soluble yellow pigment carthamidin (20%) and an orange-red dye (2%), which is insoluble in water but readily soluble in alkaline solution called carthamin. The carthamin is of commercial importance and is used as additive in food, beverage, cosmetics and paints and for dyeing cotton and silk.
Safflower oil is the premium oil for it is the healthiest of all vegetable oils. Its value further increases when blended with rice bran oil. Safflower oil is consumed domestically and hardly enters the international trade.