In this article we will discuss about:- 1. Origin and Distribution of Rapeseed and Mustard 2. Area and Production of Rapeseed and Mustard 3. Climate and Soils 4. Growth and Development 5. Varieties, Seasons and Tillage 6. Seeds and Seeding 7. Nutrient Management 8. Cropping Systems 9. Water Management 10. Weed Management 11. Harvesting and Storage 12. Quality Considerations.
Contents:
- Origin and Distribution of Rapeseed and Mustard
- Area and Production of Rapeseed and Mustard
- Climate and Soils Suitable for Cultivating Rapeseed and Mustard
- Growth and Development of Rapeseed and Mustard
- Varieties, Seasons and Tillage of Rapeseed and Mustard
- Seeds and Seeding of Rapeseed and Mustard
- Nutrient Management for Rapeseed and Mustard
- Cropping Systems of Rapeseed and Mustard
- Water Management for Rapeseed and Mustard
- Weed Management for Rapeseed and Mustard
- Harvesting and Storage of Rapeseed and Mustard
- Quality Considerations of Rapeseed and Mustard
1. Origin and Distribution of Rapeseed and Mustard:
Historically, brassica species are under cultivation in Asian countries, particularly China and Indian subcontinent. According to Russian workers, eastern Afghanistan together with adjoining northwest India is one of the independent centers of origin of brown sarson. Yellow sarson grown in eastern India exhibits largest diversity in Bengal. It is quite probable that its primary center of origin is northwest India.
According to Prain (1898), Brassica juncea (rai) found its way into India from China. It has the widest distribution in Europe, Africa and Asia. Its probable origin is Africa. It is the most pungent of cultivated mustards and contains glucoside sinigrin. B.napus is European rapeseed or Swede rape cultivated in Mediterranean region since ancient times.
The black mustard B. nigra is native of Eurasia and is table mustard for use as condiment. Eruca sativa (taramira) is relatively of recent introduction in India. It is believed to be a native of south Europe or north Africa. Brassicas are under cultivation in India, China, Canada, Europe, Australia, USA, East Africa, Russia and South America.
Rapeseed and mustard belong to genus Brassica of the family Cruciferae. The oilseeds brassicas comprises four species: B.compesiris (B. rape), B. juncea (Indian mustard), B.napus (winter and spring rape) and B. carinata (Ethiopian mustard). Together they occupy, on global basis, an area of 22.94 M ha with a production over 36.15 M t and productivity 1.58 t ha-1.
Brassicas account for about 10 per cent of total oilseeds and 14 per cent of total vegetable oil production. Mostly they are cultivated for edible oils but used as condiments, spices and as fodder for livestock.
2. Area and Production of Rapeseed and Mustard:
China, India and Pakistan account for about 90 per cent of the world production. Other major rapeseed and mustard producing countries are Canada, Germany and France. India occupies the second position in area and third production in rapeseed and mustard in the world. In India, rapeseed and mustard account for 27 per cent of the total oilseeds area and 31 per cent of total oilseed production.
Of the nine annual oilseed crops (groundnut, rapeseed and mustard, sesame, safflower, sunflower, soybean, niger, castor and linseed) grown in the country, rapeseed and mustard assumes significance in the national economy by occupying second position in area and production next to groundnut. It is one of the most important edible oilseed crops of the Indo-Gangetic plains. Bassicas are mainly grown in northern part of the country.
In India, rapeseed and mustard are grown in an area of 5.60 M ha (2009-10) with a production of 6.41 M t accounting for a productivity of 1159 kg ha-1. Rajasthan ranks first both in area (2.31 M ha) and production (2.95 M t) followed by MP (area 0.79 M ha and production 0.85 M t). Yield, among the major states, is highest in Haryana (1656 kg ha-1) followed by MP (1276 kg ha-1).
3. Climate and Soils Suitable for Cultivating Rapeseed and Mustard:
Climate:
Rapeseed and mustard are of the tropical as well as of the temperate zone crops and require relatively cool temperature for satisfactory growth and yield. In India, they are grown in rabi when the temperature is low. Brassicas grow well in areas receiving 350-550 mm rainfall. Sarson and taramira are preferred in low rainfall areas, where as raya and toria are grown in medium and high rainfall areas respectively.
In tropics, brassicas grow well at higher elevation around 1000 m and prefer moderate temperature between 25° and 28°C with optimum around 20°C. Seed oil content is relatively high at ambient temperature of 10° to 15°C. Frost damage could be serious due to its adverse effect on flower and pollen production and pollen viability. About 10 brighter sunshine hrs are necessary for growth and development.
Soils:
Brassicas can be grown on a wide range of soils such as alluvial, read loams and block soils. Raya can come up well on all types of soils. Toria does best on loam to heavy soils. Sarson is well suited to light loam soils and taramira is mostly grown on very light soils.
Brassicas does not stand waterlogging specially at seedling and vegetative stages. They prefer neutral soil reactions but can withstand alkalinity. However, they cannot come up well on rice fallows due to high residual soil moisture. High water table is undesirable.
4. Growth and Development of Rapeseed and Mustard:
Oilseeds are energy rich crops and brassicas are no exception. The energy content is 25.7 MJ kg-1 in brassica seed. Obviously, this calls for energy trapping by canopy structure.
Dry Matter Accumulation:
Seed yield is associated with greater dry matter production. Sufficient biomass accumulation before flowering is a prerequisite to support seed development. Results of experiments at Hissar indicated the importance of dry matter for the productivity of brassicas (Table 10.1).
Dry matter accumulation at preflowering phase is more important than at flowering for increasing the yield of brassicas. Genotypes with dry matter production more than 8 g plant-1 during preflowering phase recorded higher seed yield than the dry matter at flowering phase. Stem and leaf growth contributes to most of dry matter accumulation at preflowering phase.
LAI, CGR and HI:
Leaf area index of 3.5 to 4.0 between 6 and 8 weeks is a major yield determinant. Increased crop growth rate and net assimilation rate contribute to increased dry matter build up. The optimum CGR at 8 to 10 weeks was 200-210 g m-2 wk-1 when the total dry matter production was 1000 to 2000 g m-2. Harvest index of brassicas range from 0.2 to 0.3. It is positively correlated with seed yield.
Abiotic stress such as soil moisture stress and high temperature at peak flowering and pod filling leads to drastic reduction in yield and oil content. Under saline – sodic conditions, about 5 per cent reduction in oil content is usual.
Ideotype Concept:
Turling (1991) has applied the ideotype concept to achieve higher yield in brassicas.
The concept entails:
1. Leaf inclination.
2. Leaf size, shape and thickness.
3. Apetalous flowers and flowering time.
4. Dense upright pods canopy to allow more light interception.
5. Higher pod length to accommodate more seeds.
6. Shatter resistance.
7. Canola type seed quality.
Upright and large pods permit 30 per cent more light in the canopy structure with increased pod number, seeds per pod and seed weight. All these characters contribute to yield advantage.
5. Varieties, Seasons and Tillage of Rapeseed and Mustard:
Varieties:
The ICAR and State Agricultural Universities have developed varieties of brassicas to suit different cropping systems.
Some of the promising and stable varieties are given below:
Seasons:
Brassicas are cultivated during rabi (October to April) because of its low temperature requirement. Optimum sowing time for mustard, toria, brown and yellow sarson are given in Table 10.3. Taramira is seeded in Rajasthan from mid-November to mid-December, around Delhi from early November and in Punjab during November. Gobi sarson is seeded in Punjab from late September to early October.
Tillage:
Brassicas require a fine seedbed for germination and stand establishment. Land is ploughed 3- 4 times followed by harrowing till a fine seedbed is obtained. Fallow land is ploughed and harrowed for soil moisture concentration. After each cultivation, the field is planked to conserve soil moisture.
6. Seeds and Seeding of Rapeseed and Mustard:
The seed from healthy and desired plants, grown in isolation in the case of self-sterile forms should be used. Seed should be treated with Apron SD at 6 g kg-1 to minimise white rust and downy mildew at seedling stage. To protect the crop from other seedling diseases, the seed should be treated with Carbendazim, Thiram or Captan at 2 g kg-1 or Mancozeb at 3 g kg-1. At the time of sowing, the ambient temperature should be between 26° and 30°C.
Seed Rate and Plant Population:
It is worth noting that brassicas have similar seed yield under varying plant densities. Yield will not differ significantly due to seed rates varying from 4 to 5 kg ha-1. However, optimum plant population is around 100 plants m-2. For a sole crop, optimum seed rate is 5 kg ha-1 for all the brassicas. Profuse branching compensates for missing plants or low plant population. Seed rate as mixed or intercrop depends on the desired proportion of brassica crop relative to the component crop. It usually ranges from 1 to 2 kg ha-1.
Method of Seeding:
Brassicas are usually broadcasted and the field planked after sowing to give a good contact between seed and moist soil for optimum germination. However, drilling the seed in rows is ideal as it allows placement of the seed at desired depth for uniform germination. Row seeding also permits intercultivation for minimising weed infestation.
The recommended spacing ranges from 45 x 15 to 30 x 10 cm. Optimum sowing depth is 3 to 4 cm. Row seeding can be either with seed drill or sowing seed in shallow plough furrows through a hopper attached to the plough.
To ensure good seed germination and early seedling vigor, seed must be soaked in water before sowing. This is best done by covering the seed with a moist gunny bag or directly with damp earth overnight.
The seed can be mixed with equal quantity of sand for uniform seed distribution at seeding. If rain is received in a day or two after seeding, the field may be resown for optimum stand establishment. Thinning should be completed within three weeks after seeding along with intercultivation.
7. Nutrient Management for Rapeseed and Mustard:
The traditional nutrient management system for brassicas is to apply around 10 t ha-1 farm yard manure once in 2 or 3 years, especially under rainfed conditions. If the crop is grown on kharif fallow, it may not receive any manure or fertiliser.
Under irrigated conditions, the preceding crop is heavily manured and brassicas are grown on residual fertility. Due to limited availability of FYM, inorganic fertilisers are used to meet the nutrient needs of brassicas.
Nitrogen:
Nitrogen requirement of raya or mustard ranges from 20 to 160 kg ha-1 depending on soil fertility, rainfed or irrigated. Under dryland conditions, brassicas respond to 20-60 kg N ha-1, depending on soil moisture availability during crop season. At IARI, New Delhi, Eruca saliva (taramira) responded to nitrogen up to 60 kg ha-1.
Seed yield at 60 kg ha-1 was 2.2 t ha-1 as against 1.8 and 2.0 at 20 and 40 kg N ha-1 respectively A large number of experiments under different rainfed situations indicate response of 3 to 8 kg seed kg-1 N applied at 20 to 60 kg N ha-1. Based on several such experiments the ICAR (2009) recommended 40 kg N ha-1 for all rapeseed and mustard crops in rainfed areas.
Under irrigated conditions, the brassicas respond to nitrogen differently. Results of experiments indicate the need for nitrogen up to 200 kg ha-1. However, nitrogen beyond 100 kg ha-1 appears to be uneconomical in several instances. Based on the responses to applied nitrogen, the ICAR (2009) recommended 40, 60 and 80 kg N ha-1 for toria, sarson and raya, respectively. Mustard is more responsive to nitrogen than rapeseed.
Phosphorus and Potassium:
In most fertiliser recommendations, the ratio of N: P: K is 3:2:1 for brassicas. However, there are very few reports showing significant differences in yield due to P and K application, especially under rainfed conditions. To obtain target yield level of 1.5 to 2.0 t ha-1, about 20 kg P2O5 ha-1 is adequate for rainfed brassicas. For an irrigated crop, the recommended level is 50 kg P2O5 ha-1. Response of brassicas to applied potassium is uncertain if not improbable. In highly potassium deficient sandy soils, 20 kg K2O ha-1 appears to be adequate.
Based on the available information, the following balanced fertiliser schedule (kg ha-1) can be recommended for brassicas:
Rainfed brassicas: 40 N + 20 P2O5
Irrigated toria: 40 N + 20 P2O5 + 15 K2O
Irrigated sarson: 60 N + 30 P2O5 + 20 K2O
Irrigated raya: 80 N + 40 P2O5 + 25 K2O
All the recommended fertilisers should be applied by drilling at sowing. In spite of the general fertiliser schedule recommended for rapeseed and mustard to meet the nutrient needs under different situations, there are instances of brassicas responding to around 120 N, 60 P2O5 and 30 K2O kg ha-1 especially under irrigation with good crop management practices.
Secondary and Micronutrients:
Among the field crops, brassicas seems to have highest requirement for sulphur. In coarse textured soils, they respond up to 50 kg S ha-1. Average response is around 8 kg seed kg-1 at 40 kg S ha-1. Addition of sulphur has significant effect in increasing oil content.
Oil yield of 670 kg ha-1 due to application of 60 kg S ha-1 along with 150 kg N ha-1 has been reported. It is, however, suspected that high rates of sulphur application my possibly increase the antinutritional factors such as glucosinolates. In general, 20 kg S ha-1 is recommended for coarse textured soils.
Among the micronutrients, zinc and boron have positive role in increasing the yield of raya (mustard and sarson). Application of 25 kg Zn SO4 ha-1 to preceding rice crop can meet the zinc needs of succeeding brassicas. In general, 25 kg Zn SO4 ha-1 and 2 kg B ha-1 would suffice for brassicas on saline soils.
8. Cropping Systems of Rapeseed and Mustard:
Intercropping:
Brassicas are, generally, grown with rabi crops.
A number of intercropping systems have been identified to be profitable as indicated below:
Sequence Cropping:
Brassicas are usually cultivated as sole crops in rainfed kharif fallows. However, proper soil moisture conservation measures can permit brassicas after a short duration kharif crop. Crop sequences identified are given in Table 10.4.
9. Water Management for Rapeseed and Mustard:
Due to scanty winter rainfall, brassicas show favorable response to irrigation. About 60 per cent of the total area under brassicas is under irrigation. Among the brassicas, raya is most responsive to irrigation.
Critical Stages for Irrigation:
Flowering and pod formation stages are most sensitive to soil moisture stress. Scheduling irrigation at these two stages increased the seed yield by 30 per cent (Table 10.5).
Preflowering and pod formation stages responded significantly to irrigation. Additional irrigation 30 DAS may be given if irrigation water is not a limiting factor.
Scheduling Irrigation:
Scheduling irrigation at 75 per cent DASM was adequate on sandy loam soils of Punjab. However, at Navsari, irrigation at 40 per cent DASM proved beneficial. Scheduling irrigation at IW/CPE ratio of 0.3 at Hissar, 0.8 at Pusa, 0.6 at Kharagpur gave higher yields in mustard.
As per phonological stages, mustard needed one irrigation 30 DAS at Morena and Ludhina and one at flowering at Pantnagar, two at each flowering and pod formation at Navsari. In general, two irrigations each at preflowering (60 DAS) and pod development stages (90 DAS) leads to optimum mustard yield with high water use efficiency.
Ridge and furrow system results in yield advantage with around 20 per cent saving in irrigation water. The total water requirement for brassicas ranges from 450 to 600 mm depending on soil type, ET, crop duration and method of irrigation.
10. Weed Management for Rapeseed and Mustard:
Brassicas are fast growing crops and are rarely infested with more than one flush of weeds. First 30 to 45 DAS is the critical period for crop-weed competition.
Cultural Management:
Initial weed growth can be effectively controlled with intercultivation in row planted brassicas. In a broadcast crop, one manual weeding within three week after seeding is adequate to check the weed growth. Thereafter, weeds are smothered by fast growing brassicas.
Use of Herbicides:
Herbicide use in brassicas is limited because of their smothering effect on weeds. When required, herbicides can replace intercultivation or hand weeding.
PRE or POST treatment with Nitrofen (1.5-2.0) or Fluorodifen (1.5-2.0) at 2-3 leaf stage can effectively control the weeds in brassicas. Fluchloralin (0.5-0.75) as PPI is also effective. Isoproturon (0.75-1.0) both as PPI and PRE and Oxadiazon (0.5-0.75) as PRE treatment are also equally effective for weed control in brassicas.
Package of Production Practices:
The following package of practices for rapeseed and mustard aids in realising optimum yield under different situations.
Tillage:
1. Brassicas require a fine seedbed for adequate stand establishment.
2. Three to four ploughings followed by harrowing is necessary for an ideal seedbed.
3. Fallow lands should be periodically ploughed and harrowed for weed control and soil moisture conservation.
Varieties (Table 10.2):
1. Western Rajasthan, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh, Northern Madhya Pradesh
Toria:
T 9, Bhawani, PT 303, PT 507, JMT 689.
Yellow sarson:
Ragini,
Mustard:
Jagannadh (VSL 5), Jawahar Mustard 3 (JMM 915), Jawahar Mustard 2 (JMWR- 941-1-2),Varuna, Rohit, Urvashi, Basanti, NDR 8501, Narendra Ageti Rai 4, Aravali (RN 393), CS 52, RGN 13, Swarn Jyoti, (RHP 801), Vasundhara (RH 9304), RK 0103 Narendra Swarna Rai 08, HSFS 848, NRCHB 506 (hyb).
Karan rai:
Kiran, Pusa Swarnim (IGC 01).
2. West Bengal, Orissa, Jarkhand, Chattisgarh, Assam, Bihar, Manipur
Toria:
M 27, Agani (B 54), Parbhati, Anuradha.
Yellow sarson:
Benoy (B 9), Jhumka, Ragini,
Mustard:
Shivani Pusa Bold, Pusa Agrani, Pusa Bahar, Mahak (JD 6).
Black mustard:
Surya (LBM 428).
Seeds and Seeding:
1. Taramira can be seeded in Rajasthan from mid-November to mid-December, around Delhi from early-November and in Punjab during November. Gobi sarson is seeded in Punjab from late-September to early-October.
2. Seed treatment with Apron SD at 6 g per kg against white rust and downy mildew.
3. Mustard can be sown by broadcasting. However, row seeding is advantageous, as it allows intercultivation for weed management. Row spacing varies from 45 x 15 to 30 x 10 cm.
4. For a sole crop, optimum seed rate is 5 kg ha-1.for broadcasting and 4 kg ha-1 for drilling. Planking is a must to soil-seed contact for seed germination.
5. Optimum seeding depth is 3 to 4 cm.
Fertiliser Schedule:
1. Rainfed brassicas: 40 N + 20 P2 O5
2. Irrigated toria: 40 N + 20 P2 O5 + 15 K2 O.
3. Irrigated sarson: 60 N + 30 P2 O5 + 20 K2 O.
4. Irrigated raya: 80 N + 40 P2 O5 + 25 K2 O.
5. Sulphur at 20 kg ha-1 for coarse textured soils and at 20 kg ha-1 for others.
Water Management:
1. Pre-flowering and pod formation stage are critical stages for soil moisture.
2. In general, two irrigations each at pre-flowering (60 DAS) and pod formation stages (90 DAS) leads to optimum yield under different situations.
Weed Management:
1. Critical stage for weed competition is 30 to 45 DAS.
2. Intercultivation can effectively control the weeds in row planted crop.
3. Manual weeding within three weeks after sowing is effective in a broadcasted crop.
4. Nitrofen, Fluchloralin, Isoproturon and Oxadazon are equally effective.
5. Intercultivation/manual weeding appears to be economical under several situations, especially under rainfed conditions.
11. Harvesting and Storage of Rapeseed and Mustard:
Harvesting:
Brassicas are harvested when the stems and pods turn yellow, the seeds become dark and they rattle inside the pod when shaken. Seed moisture content at this stage is around 15 per cent. Over mature brassicas have high risk of shattering.
Toria, which takes 90 to 100 days to mature, is the earliest crop to be harvested from mid- December to mid -January depending on seeding time. Raya takes 110 to 150 days for maturity and the harvesting is from February to March. Yellow sarson take 120 to 160 days and brown sarson 105 to 140 days for maturity.
Harvesting is done with hand sickles. The crop is made into small bundles for handling and stacked in sun for a couple of days. It is threshed by beating the seed bearing part of the bundles by wooden mallets or by trampling the dried bundles under feet of cattle. Winnowing is done taking advantage of natural air current by slowly dropping the threshed produce from a basket held shoulder height. Cleaned seed is sun dried for a day or two before storage.
In India, average yield is about 670 kg ha-1. The European countries have a yield level of 3.5 t ha-1, Canada 3.2 t ha-1, Australia 2.0 t ha-1 and Chile 1.5 t ha-1.
Storage:
Usually small quantity of seed is stored in earthen pots, metallic containers or bamboo containers. Large quantities are stored in gunny bags. Safe seed moisture content for storage is around 8 per cent.
12. Quality Considerations of Rapeseed and Mustard:
Oil and Meal Quantity:
Brassica oilseeds have oil content ranging from 31 to 48 per cent (Table 10.6). Mustard seed oil has a specific gravity of 0.90 with iodine value ranging from 87 to 122. Saponification value varies between 170 and 200. Brassica oil has antinutritional factor like erucic acid (22:1) and eicosenic acid (20:1)
Rapeseed meal with about 40 per cent protein is a good protein supplement in animal diet Despite good quality, its use is limited due to antinutritional factor-glucosinolate. The hydrolytic products of glucosinolate such as thiocyanats and isothiocyanates are more toxic than sulpher containing glucosinolate.
They give off flavour and odour, reduce palatability with lowered fee intake and milk. They are goitrogenic with reduced iodine uptake. Most of the Indian cultivars are rich in glucosionalate content (1 to 3 %). Bitter taste of rapeseed meal is due to sinopine content (1 to 1.5 %) which reduces the paratability of meal. The meal also contains about 1.5 per cent phytic acid, which is a strong chelating agent as this reduces the bioavailability of zinc.
Utilisation:
Oldest use of rapeseed oil was as a lamp oil. The oils were also used as medicinal remedies to cure stomach problems and skin diseases. Now the oil is used mainly for industrial and edible purposes. For edible purpose, the extracted oil should contain less than 2 per cent erucic acid and less than 30 m mol g-1 of aliphatic glucosinolates of residual meal.
It is desirable to have les linolenic acid (less than 3%) and high linoleic acid (more than 3%) as they have prolonged cooking and higher self-life. Such cultivars are called Canola Cresent of the Prairies of Canada. Long chain fatty erucic acid (22:1) interferes in the myocardial conductance and shortens the coagulation time with increased blood cholesterol.
Brassicas for industrial purpose should contain high erucic acid (more than 60%) for heat stability required in lubricating oils, hydraulic fuels and additive to diesel fuels. Erucic acid is convertible into erucamide and used in plastic and mining industry, lubricants, surfactants, cosmetics etc.