In this article we will discuss about:- 1. Origin and Distribution of Chickpea 2. Area and Production of Chickpea 3. Climate and Soils 4. Growth and Development 5. Varieties and Seasons 6. Tillage and Seeding 7. Nutrient Management Required 8. Water Management 9. Weed Management 10. Package of Practices 11. Harvesting and Storage 12. Quality Considerations.
Contents:
- Origin and Distribution of Chickpea
- Area and Production of Chickpea
- Climate and Soils for Cultivating Chickpea
- Growth and Development of Chickpea
- Varieties and Seasons of Chickpea
- Tillage and Seeding of Chickpea
- Nutrient Management Required for Chickpea
- Water Management for Chickpea
- Weed Management for Chickpea
- Package of Practices for Chickpea Production
- Harvesting and Storage of Chickpea
- Quality Considerations of Chickpea
1. Origin and Distribution of Chickpea:
Chickpea is known to have originated in western Asia (probably eastern Turkey). The cultivated chickpea is not found in the wild and C.reticulatum is its progenitor, while C.echinospermum is a close relative. From west Asia, it spread to Europe and in more recent times, it was introduced in tropical Africa, central and southern America and Australia.
Introduction of chickpea in India appears to be independent in the north and Peninsular India. The earliest record of chickpea in India is from Atranji Khera in Uttar Pradesh and this dates backs to 2000 BC. Its introduction to Peninsular India appears to be between 500 and 300 BC.
Global production of chickpeas is around 7.5 M t from an area of 10 M ha with a productivity of 750 kg ha-1 India is the premier chickpea growing country accounting for 77 per cent of the total area and production in the world. Other important chickpea producing countries are Pakistan, Turkey, Mexico, Burma and Ethiopia. Major chickpea growing states in India are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra.
In India chickpea is cultivated (2005-06) on 7.1 M ha, producing 5.7 M t with a productivity of 800 kg ha-1. Madhya Pradesh with 2.6 M ha producing 2.4 M t with a productivity of 930 kg ha-1 ranks first in area, production and productivity.
Rajasthan ranks second in area and production closely followed by Uttar Pradesh. Productivity is highest (1.6 t ha-1) in AP followed by WB (1.1 t ha-1). These three states along with Maharashtra account for 84 per cent of area and 86 per cent of total chickpea production in the country. The national average productivity is 800 kg ha-1 (2005-06), which is much less than the highest average productivity (1.8 t ha-1) in Egypt.
2. Area and Production of Chickpea:
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L), also known as bengalgram or simply gram in English and chana in India, is the largest produced food legume in South Asia and the third largest produced food legume globally. Chickpea is grown in more than 50 countries. Asia accounts for 89.7 per cent of the area in chickpea production, followed by 4.3 per cent in Africa, 2.6 per cent in Oceania, 1.9 per cent in Americas and 0.4 per cent in Europe.
India ranks first in terms of chickpea production and consumption in the world. About 65 per cent of global area with 68 per cent of global production of chickpea is contributed by India. Chickpea production has grown from 3.65 to 7.50 M t between 1950-51 and 2009-10, registering a growth around 0.60 per cent annually.
During the period, area has stabilised around 8.00 M ha and the productivity has steadily increased from 482 to 895 kg ha-1. Six states: MP, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, UP, Karnataka and AP together contribute 91 per cent of the production and 90 per cent of the area under chickpea.
In India, as per the latest statistics, chickpea is grown in an area of 8.12 M ha with a production of 7.46 M t and productivity 895 kg ha-1. MP, Maharashtra and Karnataka rank first (3.09 M ha), second (1.29 M ha) and third (0.97 M ha), respectively in the area under chickpea cultivation. Production is highest in MP (3.20 M t) followed by Maharashtra (1.12 M t). Yield is highest in AP (1280 kg ha-1) followed by WB (1050 kg ha-1).
Andhra Pradesh show high growth rate of chickpea production in India. Since 1971 the state experienced high growth rate in terms of production, area and yield. Chickpea is emerging as a cash crop in black cotton soils of Andhra Pradesh.
Having realised that crops like cotton are prone to pests and diseases and prices being subjected to high fluctuations, chickpea a low risk crop, is found to be a suitable alternate to varied dry land agroclimatic conditions of the state.
Low pest and disease attack compared to other crops, storability and less price fluctuations triggered the adoption of chickpea by fanners. Drought prone districts of Kurnool and Prakasam (AP) which an area of 1.38 and 1.1 lakh ha, respectively were the top producers of chickpea during 2009-10.
Two distinct types of chickpea are recognised small seeded desi types (17 to 26 g 100-1 seed) with different colours (usually brown seed coat) of irregular shapes constituting of 85 per cent of production and large seeded Kabuli type (> 26 g 100-1 seed) of white or pale cream colour constituting 15 per cent of production.
In general, Kabuli types are well adapted to spring sowings from Afghanistan westwards into Middle East, southern Europe and North Africa and desi types are mostly planted in winter from Pakistan eastwards and also in Ethiopia, Sudan, Mexico and Chile. The Kabuli types are poor yielders as compared to desi types in India.
3. Climate and Soils for Cultivating Chickpea:
Climate:
Although, chickpea is essentially a subtropical crop, it grows well in a wide range of climates. The crop is very sensitive to excess moisture, high humidity and cloudy weather, which limit flower production, seed set and yield. Chickpea is usually grown after rainy season on stored soil moisture during winter in tropics or spring in temperate and Mediterranean regions.
In India, it is grown as rabi crop in areas of 400-700 mm rainfall. The average air temperature varies from 25° to 30°C. Nights must be warmer with 20°-25°C temperature. Chickpea is a long day plant requiring 12-16 hrs bright sunshine per day. The growing degree days range from 1400 to 1600 at 10°C base temperature.
In India, two distinct agroclimatic regions are recognised. In cold winters (rabi) of north India, the crop duration is 160-170 days. In Peninsular India, where winters are warm, the crop duration is short (90-110 days). Hence, the productivity of chickpea is higher under north Indian conditions. Pod set and seed development is limited by temperatures less than 5°C and higher than 30°C. The optimum temperature regime for chickpea is 24°- 30°C.
Soils:
Chickpea is grown on a wide range of soils from medium to heavy black soils, mixed red and black soils and alluvial soils but requires well drained aerated conditions. It does well on black cotton soils and sandy loams. Good yields are obtained on alluvial soils of northwest India capable of holding around 200 mm available water in the top 120 cm soil profile.
Black soils of Peninsular India, which can retain 250 mm water in 100 cm depth are equally ideal for postrainy season crop. Optimum soil pH is 6.0 to 7.5. It does not withstand waterlogging, saline and alkaline conditions.
4. Growth and Development of Chickpea:
Vegetative Growth:
Chickpea is indeterminate in nature and the vegetative growth continues after flower initiation and during pod development. Major part of vegetative growth occurs after flowering.
Development of leaf area is closely related to accumulation of dry matter in leaves. Increase in LAI varies between 2 and 6 during early to late pod fill stage depending on the environment. The LAI larger than 6 are excessive and favours lodging that reduces the seed yield. After reaching a maximum, leaf dry weight declines steeply until maturity as leaves dry and shed.
The rate of photosynthesis in the leaves of one month old plants range between 25 and 40 mg CO2 dm-2 hr-1. The differences are especially, large between cultivars of different geographic origin. Photosynthesis decline during flowering and pod set. The CGR of chickpea usually range between 20 and 34 g m-2 day-1. The CGR is much higher (30 g m-2 day-1) at Hissar than in Hyderabad (9.0 g m-2 day-1). The CGR of unirrigated crop at Hyderabad is around 10 g m-2 day-1 as against 20 g m-2 day-1 at Hissar.
Reproductive Growth:
Chickpea is quantitative long day plant. Response to cold appears to be quantitative rather than qualitative. Cultivars differ in the effect of cold on time to flower and on yield. Most sensitive varieties are those that originate in areas where temperatures are low at sowing time.
There is no qualitative photoperiodic requirement for flowering in chickpea but flowering is progressively earlier in long photoperiods. Flowering begins sooner in warm environments than in cool environments and sooner in photoperiods of 15 hrs than in 11 hrs.
Management practices can also influence the time to flower. Flowers appear 3 to 5 days earlier in un-irrigated crop and in close spacing. Flowering may continue for 20-30 days in crop on stored soil moisture but with irrigation, the period extends by 10 to 15 days. Only 10 to 50 per cent of perfect flowers set pods.
Pod set is inhibited at temperatures below 5°C. High mean temperatures of 28°-33°C prevents flowering of irrigated chickpea in summer (May-June). Temperature is more important than photoperiod in determining the length of reproductive period. Higher temperatures, usually, shorten the crop duration.
Yields are higher where the growing period is long. Crop duration can be extended by about a month by irrigation leading to large increase in yield. Yield per plant is determined more by the number of pods than by either the number of seed per pod or the seed size Pod number per plant depends on total number of nodes and on how many of these become reproductive. Adverse factors such as soil moisture stress and salinity limit the pod number and, therefore, the final yield. The HI of chickpea is usually greater (0.35-0.50) than in other pulses.
5. Varieties and Seasons of Chickpea:
A large number of bengalgram (chickpea) varieties have been developed for different zones. Since 1980, varieties resistant/tolerant to major diseases have been released to replace traditional susceptible varieties.
Varieties released from 1978 to 1999, which are still popular in different zones are: Gaurav, ICCC 32 (kabuli), Kranti, Bharati, Swetha, Vijay, Pragati, Pusa 362, Vishal, Pusa 1003 (kabuli), Pusa chamatkar (kabuli), JG 11, Surya and JG 322. Varieties released from the year 2005 are given in Table 8.13.
Seasons:
In India, chickpea is usually grown during rabi as rainfed crop on receding soil moisture. It is grown as an irrigated crop, especially on light soils. It is also grown after kharif rice by broadcasting the seed in standing crop of rice about a week before its harvest.
Very often chickpea is grown after kharif maize in north India. When the cool weather sets in early, third week of October is the optimum for sowing but when winter is delayed, planting can be up to November second fortnight in north India.
In the central, western and southern regions, sowings should be completed by middle October. However, varieties are now available for late sown conditions. For good germination, average ambient temperature needs to be 20°C.
6. Tillage and Seeding of Chickpea:
Tillage:
There is no necessity for a fine seedbed for chickpea. For postrainy season crop on black soils, one deep ploughing followed by two to three harrowings appears to be adequate. After each harrowing, the soil should be planked to conserve soil moisture.
Adequate slope should be provided for draining excess surface water. In general, the land will be kept fallow during kharif for conserving moisture to the rabi chickpea, especially black cotton soils of Peninsular India.
In north India, where chickpea follows short duration rice, tillage is a problem due to excessive soil moisture and hard surface soil. Under such situations, tillage should be restricted to harrowing only to break open the surface soil followed by planking to break the clods. Since the time gap between the harvest of kharif crop and sowing of rabi chickpea is very short, minimum tillage is the only option.
Seed Rate and Spacing:
Drilling or sowing in furrow behind plough is preferred. Drill sowing is superior to broadcasting. Furrow sowing is as good as drilling. After drilling or furrow sowing, the seed should be covered with plank. Seeding depth under rainfed conditions is 8-12 cm while under irrigation it is 5-8 cm. In general, 10 cm depth sowing is optimum. Optimum row spacing for desi types is 30 cm and for Kabuli types 45 cm with intra-row spacing of 10 cm. Seed rate for desi types is 65-70 kg ha-1 and for Kabuli types 80-90 kg ha-1.
From the results of several studies, the optimum plant population appears to be around 33 plants m-2 under rainfed conditions and 55 plants m-2 under irrigated conditions. When sowing is delayed and the time to flower is shorter, an increase in plant population will, generally, increase the yield provided temperature and water are not limiting.
7. Nutrient Management Required for Chickpea:
In a crop grown without fertiliser nitrogen but well nodulated, nitrogen concentration in leaves (5%) was larger than in stem (2%) in early stages of growth. There was more potassium in stem (5-6%) than in leaves (3-4%). Phosphorus concentration was about 0.7 per cent in leaves and stem.
The amount of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium that accumulate in the crop are proportional to total dry matter production. Consequently, although there may not be large differences in dry matter between crops at different locations, the concentration of nutrients does not very much. The uptake, in general, ranges from 60-200 N, 12-36 P2O5 and 75-200 K2O kg ha-1.
Application of small starter dose of Nitrogen (15-25 kg ha-1) can stimulate growth and yield provided nodulation is good and there is active nitrogen fixation. There may not be any yield increase in response to larger amounts of fertiliser nitrogen even upto 100 kg ha-1.
Where available soil moisture is not a limiting factor, there is usually no response even when soils are very low in available phosphorus. Rarely there are visual symptoms of phosphorus deficiency. The soil available phosphorus supplies suggest that either the crop requirement for phosphorus is low or the plants are extremely efficient in utilising soil phosphorus.
The average response to nitrogen has been 14 kg seed kg-1 N at 20 kg N ha-1. Application of 100 kg DAP ha-1 will be equally effective as it satisfies the needs of both nitrogen and phosphorus. Deep placement (15 cm) of fertiliser is more effective than broadcasting.
Based on the available information, the following fertiliser schedule appears to be optimum under different situations:
Nitrogen: 10 kg ha-1 for rainfed crop
20 kg ha-1 for irrigated crop
Phosphorus: 40 kg P2O5 ha-1 for rainfed crop
60 kg P2O5 ha-1 for irrigated crop
Potassium: 20 kg K2O ha-1 for rainfed crop
40 kg K2O ha-1 for irrigated crop provided the soil is deficient in potassium.
Recommended fertiliser schedule for the crop grown with stored soil moisture in black cotton sols of Andhra Pradesh is 20 N, 50 P2O5 and 40 K2O kg ha-1 all applied as basal dose at seeding.
Waterlogging aggravates chlorosis caused by unavailability of iron on calcareous soils. The symptoms of deficiency eventually disappear. If the symptoms persist, foliar spray of 0.5 per cent Fe SO4 may be given. The critical concentration of zinc in shoots is between 30 and 40 ppm.
Zinc deficiency can be corrected by a spray of 0.5 per cent Zn SO4 Soil application of Zn SO4 at 25 kg ha-1 is equally effective in increasing the yield on zinc deficient soils.
8. Water Management for Chickpea:
About 55 per cent of the chickpea area is under rainfed conditions, especially as postrainy season crop on black soils. The crop responds to irrigation on light soils of north India, particularly when winter rains are scanty. Even under drought conditions, more than two irrigations are not necessary.
Where evaporative demand is high as in Peninsular India, irrigation can double the yield. However, under conditions of low evaporative demand as in north India, irrigation can cause excessive growth leading to lodging.
Branching (45 DAS) and pod formation (75 DAS) are the most critical stages for irrigation. If irrigation water is adequate, four irrigations (sowing, branching, flowering and pod filling) appear to be adequate for the crop on light soils. Water use efficiency varies from 6 to 19 kg ha-1 mm1. Depending on the type of soil, the water requirement range is 300 to 400 mm.
Scheduling irrigation at IW/CPE ratio of 0.4 or at 50 per cent DASM is adequate for optimum yield. Chickpea is very sensitive to soil salinity. Irrigation with saline water that has EC of 10 mmhos cm-1 can reduce the yield by about 55 per cent. Irrigation water with EC of 2.6 mmhos cm-1 on soils with EC of 1.8 mmhos cm-1 may result in crop failure. Chickpea is usually irrigated following check basin method of irrigation.
9. Weed Management for Chickpea:
Weeds are problematic both in rainfed and irrigated chickpea because of its short growing nature. Weed problem is severe under irrigated than in rainfed conditions. Weed problem in rainfed crop can be minimised with intercultivation since the crop is drilled with a row spacing of 30 to 45 cm.
The following herbicides are effective against weeds in chickpea:
PRE herbicides:
Bentazon (1.0-1.5)
Pendimethalin (0.5-1.0)
Isoproturan (1.0-1.25)
Metolachlor (1.0-1.5)
Oxadiazon (0.5-1.0)
Oxyfluorfen (100-150 g)
Pendimethalin (0.5) + Imazethapyr (50 g)
PPI herbicides:
Flucholralin (0.5-1.0)
Trifluralin (0.5 – 0.75)
In several situations, integrated weed management appears to be more economical and effective. Use of PRE herbicides followed by one manual weeding 45 DAS appears to be effective against all the weeds leading to economic chickpea production under different situations.
10. Package of Practices for Chickpea Production:
All the aspects of chickpea production are summarised as package of practices for chickpea production.
Tillage:
1. One ploughing followed by 2 to 3 harrowings would be adequate for a crop on fallow black soils
2. After each harrowing, soil should be planked to conserve soil moisture.
3. Adequate slope should be provided to drain excess water.
4. For a chickpea crop after kharif rice, tillage is a problem due to compact and moist soil. Minimum tillage is the only option.
Varieties for AP:
1. For a crop on stored soil moisture, short duration, pest and disease resistant varieties would be ideal.
2. Recommended varieties for AP are JG 11, JAKI 9218, LBeG 7, KAK 2, Phuli G 95311, Kranthi, Swetha, Annegiri, Jyothi and ICCV 10.
Seeds and Seeding:
1. Third week of October is optimum time of sowing in northern parts of the country. However, early-October is optimum for a crop in central and Peninsular region,
2. A crop after kharif rice or maize in north India can be sown up to mid-November with varieties developed for late sown situations.
3. Drilling or furrow sowing with a row spacing of 30 cm at a depth of 10 cm using a seed rate of 65 to 70 kg ha-1 is optimum for traditional varieties under rainfed conditions.
4. For rainfed/irrigated Kabuli types, recommended spacing is 45 x 10 cm with a seed rate of 80 to 90 kg ha-1.
5. Sowing depth is 5 to 8 cm for traditional and Kabuli types under irrigation.
Fertiliser Schedule:
1. Blanket recommendation is 10 N + 40 P2 O5 + 20 K2 O kg ha-1 for a rainfed crop and 20 N + 60 P2 O5 + 40 K2 O kg ha-1 for an irrigated crop.
2. For AP, recommended rate is 20 N + 50 P2 O5 + 40 K2 O kg ha-1 for a crop on stored soil moisture on black soils.
3. Entire fertiliser dose is recommended at seeding by placement/drilling.
4. Soil application of zinc sulphate at 25 kg ha-1 is necessary for intensively cropped soils.
Water Management:
1. Branching (45 DAS) and pod formation (75 DAS) are the most critical stages for irrigation.
2. Generally, a crop on deep black soils is not irrigated. Crop on light soil is given two to four irrigations.
3. If water is available for two irrigations, they should be applied at branching and pod formation and if it is available for four irrigations it should be applied at sowing, branching, flowering and pod filling.
Weed Management:
1. First 40 DAS is critical for weed competition.
2. Deep ploughing once in 2 or 3 years to eradicate perennial weeds and to conserve moisture.
3. Periodical harrowing of fallow black soils during rainy season for weed control and soil moisture conservation.
4. Two or three timely intercultivations for a row-sown crop.
5. In several situations, integrated weed management involving PRE herbicides (Pndimethalin, Isoproturan etc.) followed by one manual weeding around 40 DAS appears economical.
11. Harvesting and Storage of Chickpea:
Chickpea takes more number of days (around 150 days) for maturity under north Indian conditions than in Deccan and farther south (110 days). The plants are pulled out or cut with a sickle and carried to threshing flour.
After sun drying for about a week, it is threshed under the feet of cattle or by beating with sticks. The yield of rainfed crop ranges from 800 kg ha-1 in south to about 1000 kg ha-1 in north India. Yield around 4.01 ha-1 have been obtained in Punjab and Haryana under favourable conditions. Clean dry seed is stored similar to that of pigeonpea and other pulses.
12. Quality Considerations of Chickpea:
On an average, chickpea contains 21 per cent protein, 2.2 per cent fat, 62 per cent carbohydrates. The calcium, iron and phosphorus contents (mg 100-1g) are 190, 90.8 and 280 respectively. Among the pulses, it has relatively lower protein content but higher biological value and protein digestibility. It is fairly free from antinutritional properties.
Dhal, flour, crushed or whole grain, boiled or parched, roasted or cooked and green foliage and grain as vegetable are the important forms in which it serves as a food for all classes of people. Germinated seed can cure scurvy.
An acidic liquid from granular hair of the plant are collected during night, which contains 4 per cent malic acid and 6 per cent oxalic acid. These acids are prescribed for intestinal disorders. Soaked seed and husk are fed to cattle.