In this essay we will discuss about:- 1. Origin and Distribution of Jute 2. Area and Production of Jute 3. Climate, Soils and Tillage 4. Varieties and Seasons 5. Seeds and Seeding 6. Nutrient Management 7. Jute Based Cropping Systems 8. Water Management 9. Weed Management 10. Harvesting, Retting and Extraction 11. Quality Consideration.
Contents:
- Origin and Distribution of Jute
- Area and Production of Jute
- Climate, Soils and Tillage of Jute
- Varieties and Seasons of Jute
- Seeds and Seeding of Jute
- Nutrient Management for Jute
- Jute Based Cropping Systems
- Water Management for Jute
- Weed Management for Jute
- Harvesting, Retting and Extraction of Jute
- Quality Consideration of Jute
1. Origin and Distribution of Jute:
The primary centre of origin of C.olitorius is Africa and the secondary centre may be India or Indo- Burma and south China.
Major jute growing countries are India, Pakistan and Bangladesh accounting for 90 per cent of the global production. Other countries of considerable importance are Brazil, Mexico, China, Venezuela, Egypt, Sudan, Sri Lanka, Middle East, Taiwan and parts of tropical Africa and Asia.
Jute (Corchorus capsularis and C.olitorius) ranks second in importance, next to cotton as a natural fibre and occupies important place in Indian economy. Jute fibre is extracted from phloem tissue (bast or bark fibre) in the stem of Corchorus as against seed fibre in the case of cotton. Of all the textile fibres, jute is the cheapest and is extensively used in the manufacture of packing material for agricultural and industrial products.
It is grown by about 4 M farm families and engages around 2,50,000 people in the industrial sector of the country with about 70 large jute mills. Annually, the jute industry earns about Rs 5 billion in the form of foreign exchange.
Jute fibre is obtained from bark of the two cultivated species of the genus Chrchorus namely C.capsularis and C.olitorius of the family Tiliaceae. The leaves of C.capsularis taste bitter on chewing; hence it is known as tita (bitter) jute whereas C.olitorius is mitha (sweet) jute. Flowers of olitorius are large and pods cylindrical whereas capsularis has relatively smaller flowers and globular pods.
Seeds of olitorius are bluish green to steel-gray and smaller than those of capsularis which are copper coloured. Olitorius grow taller than capsularis. Fibre of olitorius is finer, softer, stronger and more lustrous than that of capsularis. Fibre of capsularis is whitish and is called white jute whereas that of olitorius is yellowish and is called tossa jute.
2. Area and Production of Jute:
Globally, the area under jute and juit like fibre is around 1.93 M ha with a production of 3.27 M t. The average word productivity is 1,700 kg ha-1. India ranks first both in area and production of juit.
Earlier, increase in jute production in India was due to increase in area but faced a set back with the advent of cheaper synthetic fibre in a big way. The Government of India launched a special UNDP, GOI National Jute Development Programme, International Jute Organisation (IJO) and the other programmes as a rearguard action.
The recovery process began during 1980s and the trend continues unabated till now. Even though, there was a negative growth rate in area during 1980s (-2.87%) and 1990s (-0.78%), there was positive growth rate in production during 1980s (0.87%) and 1990s (0.15%) largely due to increase in productivity.
In India, the area under jute increased from 2.64 lakh ha in 1947-48 to 8.11 lakh ha in 2009-10 and fiber production from 16.7 lakh bales (1 bale= 180 kg) in 1947-48 to 107 lakh bales in 2009-10. During the same period, the productivity increased from 1138 to 2360 kg ha-1.
On an average, West Bengal accounts for about 70 per cent of the area and 75 per cent of the jute production in the country followed by Bihar with 20 per cent of the area and 15 per cent of the production.
3. Climate, Soils and Tillage of Jute:
Climate:
Jute thrives best under warm humid climate with temperature ranging from 24° to 35°C and relative humidity 90 per cent. Well distributed rainfall of 1500 mm of which about 250 mm from March to May is most ideal for jute cultivation. Alternate rainfall with bright sunshine is beneficial for a good crop of jute.
In jute growing areas of India, temperature varies between 16° and 40°C with humidity from 65 to 95 per cent. In general, temperature between 24° and 35°C and relative humidity from 65 to 90 per cent is ideal for jute. Jute crop is not economical during cold season.
Monsoon rain in most jute growing areas, except Assam sets in the middle of June and the crop sown from February to May has to depend on subsoil moisture, premonsoon showers or supplemental irrigation. In eastern and northern Bengal, premonsoon rains start early and amount to around 400 mm. West Bengal receives around 250 mm by the second week of April. In Assam, rains start much earlier and about 150 mm is received by March.
Soils:
The new gray alluvial soils of good depth, receiving silt from annual floods are ideal for jute cultivation. However, it is grown in sandy loams and clay loams with varying soil management practices. Sandy soils and heavy soils are unsuitable. Well aerated sandy loams arc best suited.
Optimum pH range is 6.0 to 7.6. Below pH 5 or above 8 is not desirable. It is generalised that loams for capsularis and sandy loams for olitorius are most suitable soils for optimum growth and fibre yield of jute. Waterlogging depresses the yield and quality of fibre.
Tillage:
Jute requires a fine seedbed, as the seeds are tiny. Its taproot extends to a depth around 50 cm and hence, deep ploughing is necessary. Additionally, 3-4 cross ploughings are given followed by equal number of harrowings. Finally, the field is leveled and planked before seeding.
4. Varieties and Seasons of Jute:
Varieties:
About 75 per cent of the jute area is under capsularis. It is highly adaptable and grown in both lowlands and uplands. The olitorius is basically an upland crop, which cannot withstand waterlogging.
Popular jute cultivars are listed below:
C. capsularis (White jute):
C. olitorius (Tossa jute):
Seasons:
Jute crop is confined to monsoon since low temperature affect growth and yield during winter (rabi). Young seedings are sensitive to waterlogging. As such, sowing in lowlands begin in February, taking advantage of residual soil moisture for capsularis. Generally, olitorius is sown in May. Delayed sowings are common in midlands and uplands (May-June). Supplemental irrigation is given depending on the availability of irrigation water.
5. Seeds and Seeding of Jute:
Seed Rate and Spacing:
A seed rate of 12 kg ha-1 is optimum by capsularis and 8 kg ha-1 for olitorius. Row distance for capsularis is 30 cm and for olitorius 20 cm. The final distance between the plants in the row should be around 10 cm to maintain optimum plant population around 2,50,000 and 5,00,000 plants ha-1 for capsularis and olitorius respectively. Low plant population encourages branching leading to poor quality fibre.
Method of Seeding:
Recommended seed rate is mixed with equal weight of sand or loose soil for uniform seed distribution. Broadcasting the seed is the usual practice, especially for completely rainfed crop. However, line sowing with seed drills to a depth of 3-5 cm is superior over broadcasting. There is scope for using intercultivation implements for weed control if the seed is sown by drilling.
Two things are done, once when the plants attain a height of 10 cm and another at 15 cm height. The final interplant distance should be around 10 cm to maintain required plant population. This operation accounts for about 40 per cent of cost of jute cultivation.
6. Nutrient Management for Jute:
Judicious application of fertilisers provides one of the quickest means of increasing jute production. In jute, greater vegetative growth is conducive to higher fibre yield since it is obtained from bark of the plant. Thus, nitrogen is the most important element, which helps to increase the fibre yield when phosphorus, potassium and calcium arc in adequate supply.
Nutrient Uptake:
On an average, 2.6 to 3.6 t ha-1 of green matter is obtained from jute crop at harvest time. Uptake of nutrients by jute crop depends on soil fertility, fertilisers applied, variety and other management practices. Generally, the average uptake of nitrogen varies from 40-80 kg ha-1 and potassium 100-150 kg ha-1. An olitorius jute crop producing 3 t ha-1 of dry fibre absorbs 111 kg N, 64 kg P2O5. 199 kg K2O, 175 kg CaO and 42 kg Mg ha-1.
Fertiliser Schedule:
Response of jute to nitrogen is universal and improved varieties of olitorius are more responsive to nitrogen than capsularis. Response of rainfed jute to nitrogen varies from 8 to 16 kg kg-1 N and that of irrigated jute from 15 to 25 kg kg-1 N. Application of phosphorus improves quality of fibre besides minimising lodging.
Response to applied phosphorus is not consistant. Potash requirement of jute is high but significant response to added potassium can be expected only on sandy soils. Based on the results of experiments under different jute ecosystems the following general fertiliser schedule can be recommended.
Capsularis:
Rainfed: 40 N, 20 P2O5 and 20 K2O kg ha-1
Supplemental irrigation: 80 N, 40 P2O5 and 40 K2O kg ha-1.
Olitorius:
Rainfed: 30 N, 15 P2O5 and 15 K2O kg ha-1
Supplemental Irrigation: 60 N, 30 P2O5 and 30 K2O kg ha-1
Time and Method of Application:
It is preferable to apply nitrogen by placement in three splits: half of the recommended dose at sowing and remaining in two equal splits at 45 and 60 DAS. Foliar application of nitrogen is beneficial. Entire dose of phosphorus and potassium should be applied at sowing, preferably 5 cm away from the seed row at a depth of 8-10 cm.
Ammonium sulphate appears to be an ideal source of nitrogen to jute crop. Rock phosphate is preferred as a source of phosphrous, especially for acid soils. Jute crop on acid soils of Assam, Meghalaya and north eastern states responds to 500-1000 kg ha-1 of lime giving additional yield of 25 per cent. Application of dolomite can meet the needs of both calcium and magnesium. Balanced fertiliser use is essential for quality jute production.
7. Jute Based Cropping Systems:
Since capsularis is sown in February and harvested in about 130 days (July) there is scope for a rice crop, which can be harvested by December. After the rice harvest, another rabi crop (wheat, mustard, pea, lentil) can be grown. Even in the case of olitorius jute, the sowing is completed by mid-April. As such, there is scope for transported rice after jute followed by a rabi crop after rice harvest. Thus, jute can be fit into intensive cropping systems, especially under north Indian conditions.
Crop Sequences:
Prospective jute based multiple cropping sequences found suitable for different ecosystems are:
Nutrient Management:
Residual effect of nitrogen applied to jute crop (67 kg N ha-1) has significant influence on succeeding mustard with an yield advantage around 200 kg ha-1. Jute crop receiving 60-90 kg N ha-1 has significant residual effect on succeeding wheat to the extent of 350 kg ha-1. Phosphorus applied to crop preceding jute, generally, has no influence on succeeding jute crop.
8. Water Management for Jute:
Jute is a rainfed crop and 2-3 supplemental irrigation are given depending on availability of irrigation water. As such, systematic work on crop water management practices for jute is very limited.
Critical Stages for Irrigation:
Jute sown during February in lowlands depends on residual soil moisture for germination and that sown in uplands during March-April depends on summer showers. As such, germination and seedling establishment is considered critical for soil moisture stress. When once adequate crop stand is established, knee height stage of the crop is considered critical for water deficits.
Scheduling Irrigation:
The ideal practice for February sown crop is to give a presowing irrigation for seed germination and stand establishment. If water is available, another irrigation should be given around 30 DAS. If irrigation water is not a limiting factor, scheduling irrigation at 50 per cent DASM or at 0.6 IW/CPE ratio appears to be ideal as vegetative growth of the crop is important for high fibre yield. Depending on climate and crop duration, water requirement varies from 500 to 800 mm.
9. Weed Management for Jute:
Weeds pose greatest problem in jute cultivation. In terms of expenditure, weed management constitutes one-third the total cost of cultivation. Weeds may reduce the fiber yield to the extent of 40-50 per cent. Critical period of weed competition is 30-55 DAS.
Cultural Management:
Broadcasting or drilling the seed in narrow rows may not permit inter-row cultivation for weed control. Manual weeding is, therefore, the only option for weed free environment in the absence of herbicides. Manual weeding and thinning are simultaneously carried out, at least twice when the crop is about 10 to 15 cm in height.
Use of Herbicides:
Recommended herbicides for weed control in jute crop are:
Weeding, especially in the early stage, is a must. For a broadcast crop, the pre-sowing application of 2.2,3,3 Tetrafluorpropionate of sodium proved to be beneficial. A post-emergence application of Monosodium Methanarsonate with or without 2,2 Dichloropropionate, as a directed spray, proved to be beneficial in row cropped fields.
Smothering the weeds between rows with a wheel-hoe saves labour and helps to mulch the soil. Application of Fluchloralin at 1.0 kg ha-1 as pre emergence herbicide followed by one manual weeding at 4-5 week crop age gave comparable fibre yield in jute as compared to completely weed free condition.
Package of Production Practices:
Tillage:
1. Jute requires a fine seedbed, as the seeds are tiny.
2. A deep ploughing followed by 3-4 cross ploughings and equal number of harrowings are necessary for an ideal seedbed.
3. Final levelling and planking.
Varieties:
1. White jute: JRC 5856, JRC 696, JRC 7447, UPC 94, BZ 22, Hybrid C (Padma), KC 1, S 19, C 80.
2. Tossa jute: JRO 7835, JRO 8432, JRO 128, JRO 620, TJ 40, JRO 3690, KMO 62.
Seeds and Seeding:
1. February is optimum sowing time for Capsularis jute in lowlands on residual moisture.
2. Optimum sowing time for Olitorius jute in medium and uplands is May.
3. Recommended seed rate for Capsularis is 12 kg ha-1 and for Olitorius 8 kg.
4. Optimum spacing is 20 x 10 cm for Capsularis and 30 x 20 cm for Olitorius.
5. Two things, when the plants are 10 and 15 cm height, are necessary to maintain optimum plant population.
Fertiliser Schedule:
1. Recommended fertiliser schedule for rainfed Capsularis jute is 40 N + 20 P2O5 + 20 K2O kg ha-1 and for irrigated crop 80 N + 40 P2O5 + 40 K2O kg ha-1.
2. Recommended fertiliser schedule for rain fed Olitorius jute is 30 N+ 15 P2O5 + 15 K2O kg ha-1 and for irrigated crop 60 N + 30 P2O5 + 30 K2O kg ha-1.
3. Entire P and K should be applied at sowing, 5 cm away from the seed row and 8-10 cm deep.
4. N is recommended in three splits: half at sowing along with P and K and the remaining in two equal splits at 45 and 60 DAS.
5. Ammonium sulphate and rock phosphosphate are ideal as sources of N and P.
Water Management:
1. Seedling establishment and knee height stage of the crop are critical to soil moisture stress.
2. If water is not a limiting factor, irrigation at 15 days interval leads to high yield.
3. If water is adequate for one irrigation, it should be given as pre sowing irrigation for optimum seed germination and stand establishment.
4. If water is available for two irrigations, they should be given as pre- sowing irrigation and around 30 DAS.
Weed Management:
1. Critical period of weed competition is 30 to 55 DAS.
2. Two hand weedings, along with thinning, when the crop is at 10 and 15 cm height would be economical.
3. For a broadcast crop, the pre-sowing application of 2,2,3,3 Tetrafluorpropionatc of sodium proved to be beneficial.
4. Application of Fluchloralin (1.0 kg) as pre emergence spray followed by one manual weeding at 4-5 week crop age would be equally effective.
10. Harvesting, Retting and Extraction of Jute:
Harvesting:
Jute may be harvested at any time between 120 and 150 days after seeding. Early harvesting gives finer fibre of good quality and late harvesting gives larger yield of coarser fibre. Compromise between quality and quantity is in harvesting at early pod stage or around 135 days after seeding. The other consideration for early harvesting is to accommodate rice transplanting as per the cropping system.
Harvesting is done by cutting the plants close to the ground level. In flooded lands, the plants are uprooted. After harvest, the plants arc left in field for 2-3 days for the leaves to shed. The plants are then tied into bundles, 20 -25 cm in dia and the branched tops looped off to rot in the field.
Retting:
Retting is a microbial process by which the fibres are separated from the bark and woody core due to removal of pectin, gums and other mucilaginous substances by retting bacteria present in water.
The bundles are kept standing in water 30 cm deep and later placed side by side in retting water, usually in 2-3 layers and tied together. They are covered with water hyacinth or any weed that does not release tannin and iron. The float is than weighed down with seasoned logs or with concrete blocks or are kept submerged (10 cm below water surface) with bamboo crating.
If banana stock, cut mango stem or clods of earth are used as covering or weighing agent, tannin coming out of stem react with iron of retting water forming ferric tannate and decolourise the fiber. This is popularly known as shyamal colour in jute fibers of low quality.
Gently flowing, fairly deep, clear and soft water is ideal for retting. The optimum temperature is around 34°C. Ditches, tanks and pools are also used for retting. Incomplete submergence produces croppy fiber of extremely low value. Most of the defects in fiber are due to faulty retting.
Over retting results in dazed weak fiber. The end point of retting is determined by inspecting few stems, each day from tenth day onwards. If fiber slips out easily from the wood on pressure from the thumb and finger, retting is considered complete.
Extraction:
In the beat-break-jerk method of fibre extraction, 10-12 reeds from a bundle are taken at a time; their stiffer root-ends are beaten with a mallet to loosen the fibre. The bundle is then broken in the middle, the broken bundle is jerked in water so that the sticks slip off. The fiber is than washed in clear water, wrung and eventually spread to dry, preferably in shade or mild sun. This method often leaves the broken sticks and make fiber somewhat entangled resulting in sticky fibre.
In the single plant extraction method, the fiber is extracted separately from each reed (stem) with fingers. Extracted fiber is sleek, clean and free from entanglement. Extraction of fiber from green stems with a machine, followed by a short period of retting has been proved to be successful at CRIJAF.
Yield:
Major determinants are plant height, basal dia and fibre-stick ratio.
Different methods are followed to determine the fibre percentage of jute and allied fibres as indualed below:
Average yield of jute fibre (1996-97) is 1970 kg ha-1. However, well-maintained olitorious and capsularis crop can yield upto 2.75 and 2.0 t ha-1 respectively. Yield potential of these two has been assessed at 4.0 and 3.5 t ha-1 respectively. Seed crop of capsularis and olitorius, on an average, give seed yields of 0.4 and 0.5 t ha-1, respectively
11. Quality Considerations of Jute:
Quality of bast fibers is a complex function of different quality parameters such as strength, fineness, meshiness, surface structure of fiber strands, colour, lustre and amount of cuttings etc. All these quality indices do not go together. There are different methods for determining the quality. Hands-and-eye methods are, generally, employed in practical field.
Factors Influencing Quality:
Quality of fibre is judged mainly based on strength, fineness, surface strength, lustre, colour and length. The fiber should be strong, finer, lustrous, good colour and good reed length.
Quality of fiber is influenced by two groups of factors:
Non-controllable Factors:
Environmental factors including soil, climate, amount and quality of retting water, nutrient uptake, stage of harvest etc.
Controllable Factors:
Species, verities, cultural practices, method of retting and extraction.
Terms Used in Assessing Quality:
The following terms are used in trade for assessing the grading of fibre:
Strength:
Resistance offered by the fiber strand against tearing strain or rupture.
Colour:
Actual colour of the fiber strand.
Lustre:
Indicate the degree of reflection of the normal light from the fibre.
Density:
Mass per unit volume of the fiber. High density fiber is desirable for good quality.
Reed length:
Entire length of the fiber system including the root and tip.
Root:
Hard barky region of the lower end of the reed.
Defects:
Center root:
Hard barky region at middle of the reed.
Runners:
Hard barky matter running along the reed length.
Specks:
Barky and knotty regions on the body of the fiber strands.
Croppy fibre:
Rough and hard portion of the top ends due to defective retting.
Gummy fibre:
Fiber adhered together with un-dissolved pectinous matter.
Hunka:
Very hard barky fiber running from bottom to the top of the reed.
Dazed fibre:
Weak and dull badly exposed and stored in moist condition.
Grading:
The process of rating out the fiber in different classes on the basis of different quality parameters.
Defects in the Fiber:
Defects in the fibre are its being barky and croppy (incomplete submerging) or incomplete retting; specky (apion damage); leafy (incomplete retting or washing) and sticky (defective extraction). The fibre becomes dirty by using clods of earth and muddy retting water and careless washing.
The plants become mossy with adventitious roots emerging from the stems. The fibre becomes shyamla as a result of iron-tanning reaction. Roots are caused by more than one factor but the main one is incomplete separation of fibre at the base of the stem during retting.
The quality of the jute fibre among varieties differs on the basis of anatomical features of the fibre cells and their orientation and is genetically controlled. Coarser and light-body fibre is obtained from sandy soils whereas clay loam soils with silt give fibre of superior quality.
Climate and the nutrition pattern also affect the fibre. But the most important single factor is retting which, if faulty, mars the positive contributions of the variety, soil, climate etc. Under retting gives coarse and over retting dazed and weak fibre.
Grading:
Grading system for white jute (Capsularis) has 8 classes, viz. W 1 to W 8, on the basis of length, strength, fineness and luster, and freedom from enlargement and ‘roots’ (rejectable balas portion). For tossa jute (Olitorius) there are 8 classes-TD1 to TD8.