Agriculture is the source of perpetual creation on which civilization depends and agricultural education is the knowledge system that provides the technical foundation for such creation. The history of agriculture and civilization go hand in hand as the food production made it possible for the primitive man to settle down in selected spots leading to formation of society and initiation of civilization.
This discovery of agriculture took place in western Asia in the hilly region embracing Israel. Jordan, Anatolia, Iraq, Caspian basin and adjoining Iranian plateau during 7500-6500 BC when people in India were still hunting wild animals. During 3000-1700 BC, tiny villages of self- sufficient farmers, gradually, transformed into populous cities nourished by secondary industries and foreign trade and regularly organised as states.
This transformation began in Mesopotamia in fourth millennium BC from where it spread to Egypt and subsequently to Indus valley. Origin of city is one of the main achievements of Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations. Rise of a city meant improvement in the techniques of agricultural production so that non-agriculturalists also could be maintained.
The Harappans, city centered agricultural communities, thrived on wheat, barley, sesame, mustard, animal husbandry, industry of woven cotton, arts and crafts and trade. Their agriculture was plough agriculture with dependence on bullocks for draft.
The achievements of Harappan culture viz. use of copper and bronze, pottery, plough, bullock cart, irrigated farming, domestic animals were adopted by Aryan invaders. During 2295-1300 BC, cultivation of millets and pulses and discovery of silk occurred. Cultivation of rice, bananas, sugarcane and yams was developed in eastern India about 2000 BC.
Peter Discresenzi (1230-1307 AD) collected literature on agronomy in his book Opus Ruralium Kamo Daram for the first time. He is called as father of agronomy.
Important events in the history of agriculture are summarised below:
10,000 BC – Hunting, gathering.
8700 BC – Domestication of sheep.
7700 BC – Domestication of goat.
7500 BC – Wheat and barley cultivation.
6000 BC – Domestication of cattle and pigs.
4400 BC – Maize cultivation.
3500 BC – Potato cultivation.
3400 BC – Wheel invention.
3000 BC – Bronze tools.
2900 BC – Plough invention and irrigation.
2700 BC – Domestication of silkworm in China.
2300 BC – Cultivation of chickpea, pear, sarson and cotton.
2200 BC – Domestication of fowl, buffalo and elephant.
2000 BC – Rice cultivation.
1800 BC – Fingermillet cultivation.
1725 BC – Sorghum cultivation.
1700 BC – Taming of horse.
1500 BC – Sugarcane cultivation and well-irrigation.
1400 BC – Use of iron.
15th century AD – Cultivation of oranges, brunjal and pomegranate.
16th century AD – Introduction of several crops into India by Portuguese-potato, cassava, tomato, chillies, pumpkin, papaya, pineapple, guava, custard apple, groundnut, tobacco, cotton, cashew nut.
Early Development (1800 to First Century BC):
The Early Aryans (Bronze Age People):
About 1800-1600 BC, the Aryans left their homeland in south Russia in the steppes and dispersed east and west. Horse, used for riding, racing, chariot, ploughing etc., was the characteristic domesticated animal of the Aryans. They depended on wheat, barley, millets, pulses, sesame, mustard and animal husbandry.
The Vedic Age (1500-1000 BC):
In India, the Aryans occupied Kashmir, Punjab and parts of Sindh and Rajasthan by conquering the inhabitants (Dasyu and Dasas) and treated them as Shudras. The man behind the plough was looked upon as a dull individual, not a fit company for the members of the upper class. The profession of farming was regarded as fit only for the unlearned and those devoid of wisdom. It remained so for centuries.
The later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC):
From about 1000 BC, use of iron spread from Balochistan, Gandhara to eastern Punjab, western Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. It reached eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar by seventh century BC. Invention of iron axe helped in clearing forests at a faster rate for cultivation.
When the wooden ploughs were provided with iron ploughshares, their efficiency further improved. This improvement helped the Aryans to cultivate the virgin land, thus leading to greater mastery over food production.
The Buddhist Period (Sixth Century BC):
During the sixth century BC, eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, where forests were cleared and the land was colonized under the patronage of ruling monarchs, occupied the stage of history.
The rural economy of India at the coming of Buddhism was based chiefly on a system of village communities of peasant proprietors. There were no landlords. The king had a right to a tithe on raw produce collected as a yearly tax and only to this extent, could he be considered the ultimate owner of the land.
The tithe on produce was levied in kind, measured out either by the village headman or by an official at the barn door or by survey of the crops. The amount levied varied from 1/6 to 1/12, according to decision of the ruling power or other circumstances. Majority of the holdings were small, manageable single- handed or with the family members.
The pursuit of agriculture was not associated with either social prestige or social stigma. Brahmins were found pursuing tillage, cow herding, goat keeping, trade, woodwork, weaving, archery and carriage driving. The hired labour apparently was assigned a low social rank.
The Magadhan Empire (Fourth Century BC):
Magadhan Government had a well organised revenue administration, bureaucracy, army and police. There were superintendents for various departments. In his Arthashastra, Kautilya, thus, enumerates the qualifications and duties of superintendent of agriculture.
“Possessed of the knowledge of science of agriculture dealing with plantation of bushes and trees or assisted by those who are trained in such sciences, the superintendent of agriculture shall in time collect the seeds of all kinds of grains, flowers, fruits, vegetables, bulbous roots, fiber-producing plants and cotton. He shall employ slaves, labour and prisoners to sow the seed on crown lands which have been often and satisfactorily ploughed”.
King was the biggest landowner. Land farming directly under the crown supervision was called Sita lands. The state derived substantial income from these lands, which-were settled with Shudras who gave one-fourth of the produce to the state warehouse. Formation of villages started during this period. How the villages were settled is described in Arthashashtra.
The Asoka Period (274-237 BC):
Asoka actively promoted arboriculture (forestry) and horticulture. He encouraged planting of trees in gardens and along roads in the form of avenues, buddhism propagated agriculture and love for tree gardens.
The Satavahanas (First Century BC to Second Century AD):
During this period, when north India was ruled by the Indo-Greeks, followed by Kushans, the Deccan was ruled by Brahman dynasty of Satavahanas (Andhras). They made land grants to Brahmans who first brought plough agriculture to replace slash and burn cultivation.
Knowledge of distant markets, organisation of village settlements and trade also came with them. As a result, king or kings to be invited Brahmins from the distant Gangetic basin, to settle in unopened localities.
Age of the Guptas (300-550 AD):
This period is called Golden Age of India. The striking development of the Gupta period was the emergence of the Brahman landlords at the cost of local peasants. These landlords were imposed from above on the local tribal peasants who were reduced to a lower status. In central and western India, the peasants were also subjected to forced labour.
Vaharamirci Brliatscimbhita provides information on agriculture besides other sciences. Agnipurana deals with selection of land, manuring, cultivation, seed collection, sowing, planting and grafting.
The Amarakosha of Amarasimha contains information on soil, tillage, irrigation and agricultural implements. The Amarakosha describes twelve types of lands in its chapter on Bhumivarga, depending upon the fertility of the soil, physical characteristics and irrigation.
Empire of the Harshavardhana (606-647 AD):
At the close of sixth century, four kingdoms arose in India out of the ruins of Gupta Empire. Harshavardhana became the king of Kanauj. Nalanda had become an international centre of Buddhism. The crown lands were divided into four categories. The first was for carrying out the affairs of state, the second for paying the ministers and officers of crown, the third for men of genius and the fourth for giving alms to religious communities.
In this way the taxes on people were light. Everyone tilled the soil for subsistence. Those who cultivated the royal estates paid a sixth part of their produce as tribute. Reliable information on agriculture during nine to eleventh century is scarce. The source of information on agriculture during this period is writings of early Arab writers.
The Muslim Rule (1206-1761 AD):
Mohammedan elite considered agriculture as an insignificant activity and those who practiced it as persons of no consequence. They laid emphasis on administration, trade, commerce and urban life. However, a few rulers like Firoz Shaw Tughlak, Sher Shah Suri and Akber were sympathetic towards tillers of the soil.
Sultan Ala-ud-din followed a deliberate policy to impoverish Hindu peasants to make them submissive and obedient. Net result of his policy was universal poverty and degradation among the peasantry who were mostly Hindus living in rural areas.
Firoz Shaw Tughlak constructed the Western Yamuna canal in 1355 AD to provide water to the newly constructed cities of Hissar and Safidon. Land revenue system was improved during Akbar period. Taquai loans were given to cultivators in distressed circumstances for the purchase of seed and cattle. Land occupancy right was made permanent and hereditary.
Condition of the peasants, however, was wretched with limited resources. Their holdings were small with primitive tools. There was no evidence that they could accumulate capital to make improvements on their land holdings.
During Shah Jahan period, West Yamina canal was dug and during Firoz Shah period it was renovated. Condition of peasantry became progressively more wretched from Akbar to Aurangzeb as the tax burden increased and the bottled-up discontent erupted in a series of revolts.
The British Rule (1757-1947 AD) and Free India:
The primary concern of the British rulers was to promote commerce of their country in India. Botanical gardens established at Sibpur, Saharanpur, Bangalore and Ootacamand played a great role in plant introduction into India from East Indies, China and Europe.
Baptist missionary, Dr William Carey under the patronage of Marquis of Hastings, founded the Royal Agri-Horticultural Society, Calcutta in 1820 with branch societies in all the provincial capitals. Introduction of seeds of crops and ornamental plants in India was largely the work of these societies. The botanical gardens and the Agri-Horticultural societies were the main institutions for introducing agricultural improvements in India down to 1866.
Insecurity of tenure was the bane of Indian agriculture. Without security agriculture cannot develop. From 12th to 18th century, the human environment in India was not conducive for agricultural development. It was fatal for a man to raise his standard of life because to do so marked him out as a fair game for robbers and extortionists.
It was an environment, which penalised productive effort, necessitated the concealment of any surplus income and which operated to stereotype the low standard of life, which offered the only chance of being left alone.
The first objective of British administration was that of restoring law and order and the next was to organise the collection of land revenue. Cornwallis accepted the agrarian structure as it was, and made the absentee zamindars of Bengal landlords of vast estates.
The real cultivators of land and lower strata of the rural population, who bore the brunt of agricultural work, were totally ignored in the permanent settlement of the eastern provinces of Bengal and Bihar.
Soon after the injustice of this arrangement became evident, the security of tenure was conferred on the cultivators (ryots) under Ryotwari Settlement of land tax in Madras presidency, Bombay presidency and the Punjab.
The land tax gradually became a uniform rate at about one-half of the economic rent. The tax burden on cultivators was excessive and they were left with no surplus to take up improvements in the farms or better their standard of living.
A separate Department of Agriculture was created at national level in 1871. Some of the provinces (now states) also created independent agricultural departments. Facilities for agricultural education were created at Coimbatore in 1878 and at Pune in 1890.
After the Great Famine of 1876-77, a Famine Commission was appointed in 1880. Dr JA Voeleker, consultant chemist to the Royal Agriculture Society submitted report on improvement of Indian Agriculture in 1891.
In the first decade of twentieth century, the Imperial (now Indian) Agricultural Research Institute (now at Delhi) was set up in 1905 at Pusa (Bihar). Subsequently, agricultural colleges were started at Coimbatore, Pune, Nagpur, and Kanpur. Royal Commission (1926) report was accepted in 1928. Department of Food was created in 1942.
In order to meet the food requirement Grow More Food Campaign, Food Policy Committee, Famine Enquiry Committee and Fertiliser Production Programmes were initiated. In January 1946, ‘Statement of Agriculture and Food Policy in India’ was issued with ten objectives to promote welfare of the people and to secure a progressive improvement of their standard of living.
Steps were taken to organise research support to agriculture through research institutes and commodity committees.
Historic developments in agriculture during British rule and in free India are:
1871: Department of Agriculture created.
1878: Higher education in agriculture at Coimbatore.
1880: Famine Commission appointed.
1890: Higher education in agriculture at Pune.
1891: Dr J A Voelcker report on improving Indian agriculture.
1900: Forest Research Institute.
1901: First Irrigation Commission.
1921: Indian Central Cotton Committee.
1926: Royal Commission on Agriculture headed by Lord Linlithgow, reported submitted in 1928.
1929: Imperial (now Indian) Council of Agricultural Research at Delhi.
1936: Indian Central Jute Committee.
1942: Department of Food created.
1942: Grow More Food Campaign.
1944: Indian Central Sugarcane Committee.
1945: Indian Central Tobacco Committee.
1946: Directorate of Plant Protection and Quarantine.
1946: Central Rice Research Institute.
1947: Food Policy Committee.
1947: Fertilisers and Chemicals, Travancore.
1952: Community Development Programme (CDP).
1953: National Extension Service Programme (NESP).
1956: Project for Intensification of Regional Research on Cotton, Oilseeds and Millets (PIRRCOM).
1957: All India Coordinated Maize Improvement Project (AICMIP).
1958: Status of Deemed University accorded to IARI.
1960: Intensive Agriculture District Programme (IADP).
1960: First Agricultural University at Pantnagar.
1963: National Seed Corporation (NSC).
1965: Intensive Agriculture Area Programme (IAAP).
1965: National Demonstration Programme.
1966: High Yielding Varieties Programme.
1966: Directorate of Extension.
1966: Placement of different agricultural research institutes under the purview of ICAR.
1966: Multiple Cropping Scheme.
1969: Second Irrigation Commission.
1970: Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP).
1970: National Commission on Agriculture (report submitted in 1976).
1971: All India Coordinated Project for Dryland Agriculture.
1972: ICRISAT.
1973: Creation of Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE) in the Ministry of Agriculture.
1973: Minikit Trials Programme.
1974: Command Area Development.
1974: Opening of first Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) at Puducherry.
1975: Establishment of Agricultural Research Service (ARS) and Agricultural Scientist- Recruitment Board (ASRB).
1976: Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP).
1977: Training and Visit system (T&V).
1979: Launching of Lab-to-Land Programme (LLP).
1979: National Agriculture Research Project (NARP), Phase I.
1982: National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD).
1981: Revenue and Agricultural Department.
1985: National Agricultural Extension Project (NAEP).
1986: National Agricultural Research Project (Phase II).
1989: King Baudouin Award for ushering in the green revolution.
1995: Initiation of Institution-Village Linkage Programme (IVLP).
1996: Establishment of National Gene Bank (NGB) at New Delhi.
1998: Launching of National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP).
2004: King Baudouin Award for research and development efforts made under partnership in rice wheat consortium.
2005: National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP).
2009: Yashpal Committee to advise on renovation and rejuvenation of higher education.
2010: National Commission for Higher Education and Research (NCHER), which would be a unified supreme body to regulate all branches of higher education including agricultural education.